
CopghtN 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



Market Dairying 



and Milk Products 



BY 



JOHN MICHELS, B. S. A., M. S. 

Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry in the Milwaukee 

County (Wis.) School of Agriculture and 

Domestic Economy 

Author of "Creamery Butter-Making" and 
"Dairy Farming" 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 



ILLUSTRATED 



WAUWATOSA, WISCONSIN 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

191 2 

All Rights Reserved 



COPYRIGHT, BY 
JOHN MICHELS 

• 1909 and 1912 




I CLA3 19603 

Ml 



PREFACE. 

Dairy instruction has hitherto been confined chiefly to 
the economical production of milk and the manufacture 
of butter and cheese. Yet those who have thoroughly 
studied the subject must admit that market dairying 
deserves fully as much attention as either the econom- 
ical production of milk or the manufacture of butter 
or cheese. 

The subject of market dairying presents two very im- 
portant aspects : One is to educate dairymen to produce 
better and more wholesome milk; the other is to instruct 
them in all the economies relating to their business so 
as to insure maximum financial returns. 

For a number of years the author has been brought 
face to face with the problems relating to market dairy- 
ing. He has been actrvely engaged in the production and 
marketing of sanitary milk and cream, and in the manu- 
facture and marketing of ice cream, cottage cheese, and 
skimmilk-buttermilk. The markets and diiry conditions 
of the country have been thoroughly investigated and 
new methods and plans have been developed, some of 
which have already been published in bulletin form or 
otherwise. 

The production of this volume is, therefore, largely the 
result of the knowledge and experience thus gained, and 
the realization of the urgent and increasing needs along 
this line of dairying. An attempt has been made to so 
arrange the material that it might answer the needs of 
both the classroom and the dairyman who cannot attend 
a dairy school. 

John Michels. 

April i, 1909. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 

In preparing the second edition of Market Dairying, 
an attempt has been made to cover the entire subject of 
market milk as completely as possible, and to include 
instruction in the various side-lines which milk dealers 
may engage in at considerable profit. The subjects of 
butter and cheese making have also been accorded con- 
siderable space in order to satisfy the needs of those 
who are looking for information not only on the sub- 
ject of milk but on the manufacture and handling of the 
common milk products as well. 

Practically every chapter has been revised and ampli- 
fied. This, together with the addition of fifteen new 
chapters, has nearly doubled the number of pages found 
in the first edition. 

The constant aim in the present revision has been to 
adapt the book for class instruction, but it is believed 
that the scope and treatment will also justify its use as 
a reference book by all milk dealers as well as butter 
and cheese makers. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Chapter I. Chemical and Physical Properties of 

Milk 7 

Chapter II. Bacteria and Milk Fermentations 20 

Chapter III. Sanitary Milk Production 29 

Chapter IV. Cooling and Aeration of Milk 39 

Chapter V. The Babcock Test 48 

Chapter VI. Composite Sampling 59 

Chapter VII. Sampling and Testing Cream 65 

Chapter VIII. The Lactometer and Its Use 75 

Chapter IX. Acid Tests for Milk and Cream 83 

Chapter X. Creaming 90 

Chapter XI. Cold Storage 97 

Chapter XII. Pasteurization 104 

Chapter XIII. How to Secure a Good Market 117 

Chapter XIV. Marketing Milk and Cream 121 

Chapter XV. Profitable Side-Lines 132 

Chapter XVI. Starters or Lactic Acid Cultures 135 

Chapter XVII. Cultured Milk 147 

Chapter XVIII. Skimmilk-Buttermilk 154 

Chapter XIX. Ice Cream Making 157 

Chapter XX. Modified Milk 170 

Chapter XXI. Soft and Fancy Cheese Making 175 

Chapter XXII. Certified Milk 183 

Chapter XXIII. Relative Value of Milk and Its Products 186 

Chapter XXIV. Detection of Tainted Milk and Cream.. 190 

Chapter XXV. Detection of Preservatives and Dirt.... 195 

Chapter XXVI. Judging Milk and Its Products 200 

Chapter XXVII. Buying and Selling on the Butterfat 

Basis 211 

Chapter XXVIII. The Care of Milk in the Home 216 

Chapter XXIX. Keeping Accounts 220 

Chapter XXX. Control of City Milk Supply 226 

Chapter XXXI. Buttermaking 239 

Chapter XXXII. Marketing Butter and Cheese 263 

5 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Page. 

Chapter XXXIII. Butter Overrun 274 

Chapter XXXIV. Cheddar Cheese Making 278 

Chapter XXXV. Creamery and Factory Dividends 287 

Chapter XXXVI. Mechanical Refrigeration 296 

Chapter XXXVII. Washing and Sterilizing Milk Vessels. .306 

Chapter XXXVIII. Dairy Houses 312 

Chapter XXXIX. City Milk and Ice Cream Plants 320 

Chapter XL. Boiler and Its Management 326 

Chapter XLI. Water and Ice Supply 337 

Chapter XLII. Sewage Disposal 343 

Appendix -. 349 

Index 369 



MARKET DAIRYING. 

CHAPTER I. 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP MILK. 



Milk, in a broad sense, may be denned as the normal 
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
their young. It is the only food found in Nature con- 
taining all the elements necessary to sustain life. More- 
over it contains these elements in the proper propor- 
tions and in easily digestible and assimilable form. 




Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and 
bacteria.— Russell's Dairy Bacteriology. 

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive 
of cows' breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 

7 



8 MARKET DAIRYING 

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due 
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
quantities of organic acids. 

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 an d 1-033. After 
standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character. 
Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." 
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water, 
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures: 

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
pilation of -figures from various American Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87. i£ 

Butter fat 3.9^ 

Casein 2.9^ 

Albumen 5# 

Sugar 4.9^ 

Ash 7# 

Fibrin Trace. 

Galactase Trace. 



100. o£ 



The great variations in the composition of milk are 
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 9 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Water 9069 80.32 

Fat 6.47 167 

Casein 423 1-79 

Albumen 1.44 - 2 5 

Sugar 6.03 2. II 

Ash 1. 21 .35 

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
even higher than this. 

BUTTER FAT. 

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and 
cheese production. 

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five 
times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
cream and the churning of same impossible. 

The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 



10 MARKET DAIRYING 

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
about one ten-thousandth. 

Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
age of the cow. 

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
between wide limits, the average being 92 ° F. 

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
butter fat has the following composition : 

Butyrin 3.85 ) 

Caproin 3 .60 I Soluble or volatile. 

Caprylin 55 \ 



Caprin 1 . 90 

Laurin 7 . 40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin 25 .70 - 

Stearin 1 . 80 

Olein, etc 35-00 



Insoluble or 
;:non- volatile. 



This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
butyric. 

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144 F., and forms 
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57 F., and forms the 
basis of soft fats. 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 11 

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
at — 2° F. and melts again at 28 ° F. 

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter 
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks 
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
perature is such a variable one. 

The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
enced by: 

1. Breeds. 

2. Feeds. 

3. Period of lactation. 

4. Individuality of cows. 

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 

Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
butter fat. 

With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
tation. 

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 



12 MARKET DAIRYING 

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 

Soluble Fats. The soluble or volatile fats, of which 
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
and other animal fats. 

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those 
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
June butter. 

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
due to abnormal volatile fats. 

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 

Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
globulin and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the 
casein and albumen being by far the most important. 

Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
almost endless variety of cheese. 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 13 

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
exact composition still undetermined. 

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing 
sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which 
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture 
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170 F. 
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein 
and albumen radically differ. 

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
All of the milk sugar is in solution. 

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 



14 MARKET DAIRYING 

the viscosity of milk and' cream is largely due to soluble 
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
"whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig- 
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
of milk. 

Colostrum Milk. This, is the first milk drawn after 
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 

According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
trum milk is as follows : 

Water 71.69* 

Fat 3-37 

Casein 4.83 

Albumen 15.85 

Sugar 2.48 

Ash 1.78 

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
the animal. 

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
for butter production. 

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con- 
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 15 

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
process of milking. "Further, the entire process of milk 
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of 
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production 
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
milking. 

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process -known 
as osmosis. 

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif- 
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 



16 MARKET DAIRYING 

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
II. — Those of an artificial nature. 

I. QUAUTY OF MIUC AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
gradually richer until the cow "dries up." The following 
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change: 

Month of Per cent of fat 

lactation. in milk. 



i 4 

2 4 

3 4 

4 4 

5 4 

6 4 

7 4 

8 4 

9 4 

io 5 



It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
up, it may test as high as 8%. 

2. The quality of milk also differs with different 
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
of the individual cows of any particular breed. 

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor 



PROPERTIES OP MILK 



17 



milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey- 
Experiment Station illustrates these differences: 



Breed. 


Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Milk 
Sugar. 


Proteids. 


Ash. 


Ayshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersey 


Per cent. 

12.70 

14.48 

•12.12 

14.34 


Per cent. 
3.68 
5.02 
3.51 

4.78 


Per cent. 
4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

4.85 


Per cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 

3.96 


Per cent. 
.69 
.75 
.64 

.75 







3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature 
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
selection and breeding for a number of generations. 



II. QUAUTY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL CON- 
DITIONS. 

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
as low as .8%, while the stoppings sometimes test as 
high as 14%. 

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers 
are so much preferred to slow ones. 



18 MARKET DAIRYING 

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the 
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
the differences we often find in the richness of morning's 
and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
instead of twice a day. 

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk 
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
oi both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any 
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 

6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the 
richness of milk, but only temporarily. 

So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
what the character of feed composing the ration. 

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
and the quality of milk produced. 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 



19 



a RMmmllk. 




b. Milk. 




•• °0° 



:^roo^g*v 



° ^° o°nS> o0 O. 






o °p< 



o°o 






CMJfY\-Mr<UCl xyAZri JfcPbtffivT^-m^RT^J tK 



A Colostrum. 






Oo 









Fat globules magnified 300 times. (U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 42.) 



CHAPTER II. 

BACTERIA AND MIEK FERMENTATIONS. 

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their relation 
to milk and milk products forms the basis of success in 
the handling of milk and cream as well as in butter and 
cheese making. Much attention will therefore be given 
to the study of these organisms in this work. 

I. BACTERIA. 

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
in the air, water and soil; in cold, hot and temperate 
climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times 
in twenty-four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
endure a temperature of 212 F. for several hours. 

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm 
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 

20 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 21 

which an exceedingly varied and active life is possible. 
In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to- 
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
flourish without them. 

II. MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn 
says that, ''In general, they are progressive chemical 
changes taking place under the influence of certain 
organic substances which are present in very small 
quantity in the fermenting mass." 

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
of the growth and multiplication of various classes of 
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
into lactic acid. 

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
lowing : 

f Lactic. 

Normal -J Curdling and Digesting. 

[^ Butyric. 



Milk Fermentations 



r Bitter. 
Slimy or Ropy. 
Abnormal... -{ Gassy. 
| Toxic. 
[ Chromogenic. 



22 MARKET DAIRYING 

NORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 

We speak of normal fermentations because milk always 
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
be discussed in the following pages. 

I. LACTIC FERMENTATION. 

This is the most common and by far the most important 
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
ture between 90° and 98 ° F. At 40 its growth ceases. 
Exposed to a temperature of 140 for fifteen minutes 
it is killed. 

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore 
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
to secure milk free from them. 

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is 
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 23 

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
milk. 

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
ripening. There are a number of different species of 
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid. 

2. CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION. 

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to 
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
inability to thrive in an acid medium. 

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of 
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. "As a 
rule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the 
digestive power, v first causes a coagulation of the casein 
in a manner comparable to rennet." 

It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
are in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
action has been -suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
being soft and slimy. 



24 MARKET DAIRYING 

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions 
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 

3. BUTYRIC FERMENTATION. 

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn 
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
to the anaerobic type. 

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
in ordinary heated milk from which the air has been 
excluded. 

The influence of the butyric acid bacteria is felt mainly 
in butter and in overripened cream. The latter frequently 
possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these 
bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened 
cream possesses conditions favorable for their develop- 
ment. Overripening should, therefore, be carefully 
guarded against. 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 25 

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during 
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
organisms." 

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
this end. 

ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
sion will be given of the most important. 

I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 



26 MARKET DAIRYING 

be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever, 
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
check. 

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
6o° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
and then held at a temperature of 45 ° for twenty- four 
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
the same cream held sweet at 45 ° for twenty-four hours 
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the bitter fermentation. 

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
taste that often develops in boiled milk. 

2. - SUMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION. 

This is not a common fermentation and rarely 
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
water, dust and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 27 

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
with them sours with great difficulty. 

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
strung out in threads several feet long. 

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores. 

3. GASSY FERMENTATION. 

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
time at low temperature. 

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 



28 MARKET DAIRYING 

these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
colors are produced such as yellow, green and black, but 
these are of very rare occurrence. 






O w ° o 




Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk ; B, after 
standing in a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides 
the fat globules, many forms of bacteria.— Moore. 



CHAPTER III. 

SANITARY MIIyK PRODUCTION. 

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from 
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in 
which contamination from filth, bad odors and bacteria, 
is reduced to a minimum. 

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of 
clean milk is one of the most important subjects that con- 
fronts the American dairyman at the present time. Fur- 
ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must 
largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk. With the 
better appreciation by the public of the great nutritive 
value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for 
consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milk 
produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for prac- 
tically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less, 
slip-shod conditions. So great is the clamor for cleaner 
milk that any extra efforts expended in producing it are 
certain to be richly compensated. 

The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani- 
tary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani- 
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) 
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole- 
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10) 
dust- free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking 
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after 
milking; (14) sanitary milk room. 

Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im- 
portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk 

29 



30 MARKET DAIRYING 

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be 
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general 
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro- 
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been 
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected 
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms. 
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present 
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or 
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application 
of the tuberculin test. 

Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a 
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be 
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased 
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be 
discarded. 

Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation and ease of clean- 
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect- 
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro- 
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im- 
portance. 

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur- 
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that 
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great 
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air. 

To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters 
should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed 
daily, and care should be taken to keep the walls and 
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must 
also be cleaned after each feed. 

The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to 
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible. 
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the 
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut- 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION . 31 

ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows 
clean. 

The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. 
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means 
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a 
-striking sanitary appearance. 

Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is 
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk. 
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is 
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To 
secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel 
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the 
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields, 
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access 
to it. 

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani- 
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet 
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of 
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider 
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into 
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions 
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every 
precaution to guard against contamination from this 
source. 

To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and 
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu- 
larly once a day. This should be done after milking to 
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked 
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, 
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to 
drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks 
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles 



32 MARKET DAIRYING 

and hairs at milking time. This practically means that 
the milker must always have one or two cows washed 
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean 
water after each washing. 

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest 
source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker 
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge 
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing 
instructions are rigidly followed. 

Attention should also be given to the cow's switch, 
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual 
switching during milking is no small matter in the con- 
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean. 

Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker 
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con- 
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be 
bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently 
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk. 




Fig. 1. Unflushed seam. Fig. 2. Flushed seam. 

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before 
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during 
milking. 

Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 33 

milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as 
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and, 
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig. 
I illustrates the character of the unflushed seam; Fig. 2 
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. 

Fig. 3 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The 
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re- 
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the 
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during 



Fig. 3 . Sanitary Milk Pail. 

milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult 
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that 
the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs 
this disadvantage. 

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as 
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of 
cleaning them is as follows: 

First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub 



34 MARKET DAIRYING 

with moderately hot water containing some sal soda. 
The washing should be done with brushes rather than 
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present 
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it 
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald 
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the 
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding, 
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without 
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready 
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile 
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of 
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, 
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day 
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays. 

Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and 
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should 
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like 
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk 
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani- 
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous 
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed 
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be 
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors 
is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind 
should always be fed after milking. 

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their 
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex- 
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never 
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored 
water. The need of pure water is further evident from 
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of 
milk. 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 35 

The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially 
dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health 
of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated 
with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may 
later find their way into the milk. 

Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so 
clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This 
operation is frequently done under the delusion that so 
long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been 
entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes 
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is 
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves 
as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them. 
These bacteria are so small that no method of straining 
will remove them. Straining can not even remove all 
of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution. 

A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese 
cloth with a layer of absorbent cotton between. The 
strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the 
milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While 
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces 
the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk- 
ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would 
be more than off-set by greater carelessness in milking; 
especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who 
are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any 
carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on 
the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of 
milker. 

New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking 
and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized. 
Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once. 

Dust=Free Air.- Great precaution should be taken not 



36 MARKET DAIRYING 

to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for 
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should, 
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just 
before or during milking. 

Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always 
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed 
before or during milking may so charge the air with dust 
as to make clean milk an impossibility. 

Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre- 
vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get- 
ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made 
even in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the 
cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner 
cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off- 
set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later, 
materially increases the germ content of the milk. The 
carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min- 
utes before the milking commences. 

Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw 
should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping 
and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create 
a dusty barn air. 

Milking With Dry Hands; A prolific source of 
milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where 
the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound 
to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil- 
lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness 
of the milker's hands and the cow's udder. There is no 
excuse for the filthy practice of wet milking, since it 
is just as easy to milk with dry hands. 

Fore=Milk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de- 
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat, 
as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 37 

for this rich development of germs is found in the favor- 
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of 
the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access. 

Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a 
dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests 
visit places of the worst description and their presence 
in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414 
flies examined by the 'Bacteriologist of the Connecticut 
Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly 
was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly 
excluded from all places where they are apt to come in 
contact with the milk. 

Experimental Data. To show to what extent the 
bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting 
the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few 
experimental data are herewith presented. 

In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment 
Station, Stocking reports the following : 

1. When the cows were milked before feeding the 
number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im- 
mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656, 
or three times as many. 

2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped 
with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was 
716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or ten times 
as great. 

3. When the cows were not brushed just before milk- 
ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when 
brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or 
nearly twice as great. 

4. When students who had studied the production of 
clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per 
c. c was 914; when the milking was done by regular 



38 



MARKET DAIRYING 



unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or 
three times as great. 

Wiping or washing udders before milking not only 
very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk, 
but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent. 
Frazer has shown that "the average weight of dirt which 
falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times 
as great as that which falls from the same udder after 
washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is 
eighteen times as great." 




Clean Milking. (From Da. Div„ U, S. Dept. of A.) 



CHAPTER IV. 

COOLING AND AERATION OF MILK AND CREAM. 

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always con- 
tains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under 
which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bac- 
teria increase with marvelous rapidity; at low tempera- 
tures their growth practically ceases. The effect of tem- 
perature on bacterial development is graphically shown 
in Fig. 57. 




Fig. 4.— Relation of temperature to bacterial growth. 

a represents a single bacterium; b, its progeny in twenty-four hours in 
milk kept at 50° F.; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 70° F. 
(Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.) 

• At a temperature of 50 F. the bacteria multiplied five 
times; at 70 ° F. they multiplied seven hundred and fifty 
times. 

Roughly speaking, at 98 F. bacteria multiply one hun- 

39 



40 MARKET DAIRYING 

dred times faster than at 70 ° F. At 32 ° F. bacterial de- 
velopment practically ceases. 

Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40 
to 45 F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop 
growing at these temperatures. But there are other 
classes of bacteria that can grow at these temperatures, 
as evidenced by the production of undesirable flavors. 
Such flavors usually become noticeable after thirty-six 
hours. Where milk and cream are to be kept in the best 
possible condition, it is necessary to reduce the tempera- 
ture to within a few degrees of freezing. 

Lack of thorough cooling necessitates two deliveries of 
milk per day, and, what is still worse, requires many 
dairymen to milk their cows shortly after midnight and 
shortly after midday, a drudgery which casts a damper 
upon the whole milk business. Lack of cooling also means 
financial loss through souring of milk and leads to many 
dissatisfied customers. 

Prompt Cooling. Milk should be cooled as quickly 
as possible after it is drawn. Indeed, the milk should be 
taken directly from the cow to the cooling room and 
promptly cooled. To do this conveniently it is necessary 
to have the cooling room located as near the barn as is 
consistent with freedom from barn odors. 

Too often the milk is allowed to remain in the barn 
until all the cows have been milked, and this may require 
from two to three hours, depending upon the number 
of cows milked by each milker. A few hours delay in 
cooling reduces the keeping quality of milk to a far greater 
extent than is commonly supposed. 

Importance of Aeration. Milk not only con- 

tains bacteria immediately after it is drawn, but it 
also contains gases, chief among which, perhaps, is car- 



COOLING AND AERATION 41 

bonic acid gas. These gases should be removed as quickly 
as possible after milking by exposing the milk in thin 
sheets to the atmosphere. Fortunately the construction 
of modern coolers is such as to make it possible to do 
the cooling and aerating in one operation. 

Formerly it was customary for dairymen to aerate 
their milk before cooling. Such practice is known to give 
somewhat better aeration than is possible where the cool- 
ing and aerating are performed in the same operation ; 
yet the difference is so slight that consumers cannot detect 
it. The practice of aerating first and cooling afterward 
is therefore being abandoned. 

Coolers. All modern coolers permit cooling with ice 
water. Without .this a sufficiently low temperature can- 
not be obtained to stop practically all bacterial growth. 
To meet the requirements of dairies of different sizes, sev- 
eral styles of coolers are herewith described and illus- 
trated. 

Corrugated Cooler. This style of cooler is shown in 
Fig. 5, which also shows a desirable method of fastening 
it. It is especially adapted to dairies having from fifteen 
to thirty cows. The cooler consists of two parts: An 
upper section which is used to cool milk and cream with 
uniced water, and a lower section through which ice water 
is circulated. 

A storage tank for well water may be placed above 
the ceiling. From this the water is admitted to the upper 
section through the valve which is used to regulate 
the flow. As shown by the arrows the water enters the 
section at the bottom and discharges at the top. The 
waste water may be conducted to the feed water tank of 
the boiler, to a watering trough, or other places where 
it may be useful. 



42 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 5-— Showing Corrugated Cooler and Method of Support. 

By means of the pump at the left, the ice water is 
forced back into the small tank at the right, which con- 
tains finely crushed ice. 



COOLING AND AERATION 



43 



As might be expected, by forcing the ice water from 
the cooler back into the ice water storage, a considerable 
saving is effected, not only of ice and water, but of time 
as well. Proof of these advantages is brought out by the 
results recorded in the following table, which shows the 
work of the cooler with and without the ice water pump. 
When no pump was used, ordinary well water was 
sprayed over finely crushed ice in the can shown at the 
right, and the discharge was allowed to run into the 
drain. 



Table Showing Work of Cooler With 

Pump. 



and Without the 



Number of Experiment. 


Amount 
Ice Used- 
Pounds. 


Time in 
Cooling — 
Minutes. 


Tempera- 
ture of 
Milk Be- 
fore Cool- 
ing—De- 
grees F. 


Tempera- 
ture of 
Well Wa- 
ter—De- 
grees F. 


(With pump... 

No. 1 ] 

( Without pump 


37 
89 


45 

92 


85 
88 


73 
73 


(With pump 

No. 3 ] 

( Without pump 


35 

94 


40 
82 


85 
84 


66 
66 


( With pump 

No. 3 ] 

( Without pump 


32 
85 


35 
93 


82 
85 


64 
64 


(W T ith pump 

No. 4 ] 

( Without pump 


38 
95 


45 
85 


88 
85 


72 

72 


( With pump 

No. 5-j 

/ Withoutpump 


34 

83 


43 

88 


85 
88 


70 
70 


( With pump 

Average < 

f Without pump 


35 

89 


41 
88 


85 
86 


69 
69 



44 



MARKET DAIRYING 



All the milk was cooled to 45 ° F., and the amount of 
milk cooled in each experiment was forty-four gallons, 
one-half of which was cooled with a pump and the other 
half without. 

The above figures show that less than half the amount 
of ice and less than half as much time were required 
in cooling with the pump than when no pump was used. 

Where no ice is intended to be used, coolers may be 
purchased without the ice water section. 



SPRING WATER 

DISCHARGE 




SPRING WATER 
SUPPLY 

ssre 

I ICE WATER 
RETURN 



ICE WATER 
SUPPLY 



Fig. 6.— Tubular Cooler. 



The cooler is fastened by means of two-inch gal- 
vanized iron gas pipes, the lower ends of which are em- 
bedded in the concrete floor while the upper ends are at- 



COOLING AND AERATION ' 



45 



tached to the ceiling (Fig. 5). The milk reservoir is also 
supported by galvanized iron gas pipes, in the manner 
shown in the illustration. 

The water pump should be fastened to the concrete 
floor in a manner similar to that in which the cream 
separator is fastened (see page 95). 

Tubular Cooler. Fig. 6 illustrates this type of cooler, 
which is recommended for large dairymen and milk- 
dealers. This cooler is very substantial, and, as a 
rule, has greater width in proportion to length than the 
corrugated style, which leaves the top of the cooler a 
more convenient distance from the floor. It may be 
fastened and operated in the same manner as the corru- 
gated cooler shown in Fig. 5. 

Cone=Shaped Cooler. 
For dairies having fewer 
than fifteen cows a cheap 
cooler like that shown in 
Fig. 7 may be used to 
advantage. The water 
enters the bottom of the 
cooler and discharges at 
the top, while the milk 
flows in a thin sheet over 
the outside. Ice may be 
placed inside the cooler, 
if desired. The can at 
the top is the milk re- 
ceiver, which has small 
openings at the bottom near the outside, through which 
the milk discharges in fine streams, directly upon the 
cone below. 

Cooling With Brine. This is the cleanest, most con- 




Fig. 7.— Cone Shaped Cooler. 



46 * MARKET DAIRYING 

venient and efficient, and, in many cases, the cheapest 
method of cooling milk and cream. The brine may be 
reduced to any temperature desired with a mechanical 
refrigerating machine. It is forced through the cooler 
with a pump, in the same manner as ordinary ice water. 
With the latter it is difficult to cool milk and cream below 
40 F., while with the brine the temperature is easily re- 
duced to 34 F., at which milk and cream remain prac- 
tically without change. Such a low temperature is espe- 
cially, desirable in shipping milk and cream. When cream 
leaves the dairy at a temperature near freezing, it may 
be shipped in an ordinary can wrapped with a felt jacket 
a distance of 500 miles or more in warm weather without 
undergoing a noticeable change in either flavor or acidity. 

Precautions in Cooling. While cooling milk or 
cream, the room should be kept damp, especially the 
floor. This will keep down any dust that may be in the 
room and thus keep it from getting into the milk. 
Draughts should be avoided during cooling for the same 
reason. In this connection it is well to remember that 
the real harm is not so much in the dust particles them- 
selves as in the many bacteria which usually adhere to 
them. 

Where coolers are left exposed to the air of the room 
after they have been cleaned and sterilized, they should 
be rinsed off with boiling water just before using. 

It is important also to use a reliable thermometer. 
Ordinary cheap thermometers often read two to six de- 
grees too high or too low. A standard thermometer 
should be on hand by which the cheaper ones may be 
standardized. 

Never Use Ice in Milk or Cream. Adding ice di- 
rectly to milk and cream is a pernicious, though not un- 



COOLING AND AERATION 47 

common, practice. The best of natural ice contains dirt 
and bacteria. Even ice made by mechanical means from 
distilled water often contains considerable quantities of 
impurities. Ice also is an adulterant just as much as 
water. In case of cream cooled with ice the body is un- 
satisfactory, even »'f the cream contains the required 
amount of fat. 

Cooling Without Special Coolers. When no special 
coolers are at hand milk and cream should be cooled 
in small cans by placing them in a tank or an oil barrel 
cut in two. Cold water is pumped into the tank or barrel 
in such a way that the cold water enters near the bot- 
tom ■ of the tank, thus forcing out the warm surface 
water. 

Water should be pumped into the tank at frequent 
intervals until the milk or cream has nearly reached the 
temperature of the water. The time of cooling is ma- 
terially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very 
essential part in cooling milk and cream in cans. 

Where milk is placed in large cans and stirred little, 
farmers lose in having the test lowered by hard par- 
ticles of cream forming at the top. Where milk is 
properly cooled, hard flakes of cream or churned cream 
will not be found on top of the milk. 



CHAPTER V. 



the; babcock test. 



This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
whey and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
be mentioned as follows : 

1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
ing to its quality. 

2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
undue losses in the process of manufacture. 

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
by locating the poor cows. 

4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
tice of watering and skimming milk. 

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
possible : 

1. By the difference in the specific gravity of butter 
fat and milk serum. 

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 

always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing 
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk and whey, weighing requires 

48 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



49 



too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 




Fig. 8 -Two styles of Babcock testers. 

tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
to be tested. 



50 MARKET DAIRYING 

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following 
parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ; 
D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
measures ; G, cream scales ; H, mixing cans ; I, dividers. 

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 8, 
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
This wheel is rotated by means of a worm wheel (lower 
machine) at the top of the tester. When the tester stops 
the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up. 
As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing 
the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel is 
enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover. 

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones, 
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to 
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
with water it would hold two grams ; but fat being only 
.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% 
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 9. 

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 10. Since cream 
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
when the 30% bottles are used. See page 71. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



51 



I 



Fig. 9.— Milk 
bottle. 




Fig. 10.— Cream 
bottle. 



-/\ 



«**<*$ 



>447# 



Fig. 11.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 



D. Skim=milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. ii, 
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 



52 



» 



I 



■it 

I 



\ 



Fig. 12. —Pi 
pette. 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 14.- 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
in Fig. 12. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will 
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c, which is equiva- 
lent to 18 grams of normal milk. 

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 
milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 

Fig. 13, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
test. The one shown in Fig. 14 is divided into six divisions, 
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



53 



many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 
in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 

H. A cream scaies is shown in Fig. 15. Also see 
Figs. 27 and 28, pages 71 and 72. 

Acid. The acid used in the test is commercial sul- 




Fig. 15— Cream scales. 

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
properly burned and particles of curd may 
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
medium in which it floats. 

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
to the air materially weakens it. 

Making a Babcock Test. The different 
indicated as follows : 

1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark 
on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the 




Fig. 16. -Show- 
ing manner of 
emptying pi- 
petle. 

steps are 



54 



MARKET DAIRYING 



top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
relieving the pressure of the ringer. 

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
in Fig. 16. 

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
was emptied into the bottle. 

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
slow rotary motion. 

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 

7. Shake or mix again and then place the bottle in 
the tester. 

8. Run tester four minutes at the 
proper speed. 

9. Add moderately hot water until 
contents come to the neck of the 
bottle. 

10. Whirl one minute. 

11. Add moderately hot water un- 
til contents of the bottle reach about 
the 8% mark. 

12. Whirl one minute. 

13. Read test. 



£ 



How to. Read Milk Test. At the 

top of the fat column is usually quite a 
pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 
17. A less pronounced one is found 
at the bottom of the column. The fat 
should be read from the extremes of 
the fat column, 1 to 3, not from 2 to 4, 
when its temperature is about 140 F. 
Too high a temperature gives too high 



•8 



Fie:. 17.— Fat column 
sho w ing meniscuses. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



55 



a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, 
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 



MM 

■ m 



Fig. 19.— Milk bot- 
tle tester. 



I. Be sure you have 



Fig. 18. Burette method. 

Precautions in Making a Test 

a fair sample. 

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 6o 
or jo degrees. 

3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 



56 MARKET DAIRYING 

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling- the 
bottles. 

6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 

7. Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
reading the test. 

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
The water added to the test bottles after they have been 

whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing 
much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may 
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. 

As stated before skim-milk, buttermilk and cream are 
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
the cream sample is weighed not measured. 

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read, 
the bottles are emptied by shaking them up and down so 
as to remove the white sediment. Next wash them in 
hot water containing some alkali, and finally rinse them 
with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed 
with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dis- 
solving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one 
pint of sulphuric acid. A small brush should also oc- 
casionally be run up and down the neck of the bottle. 

Testing or Calibrating Milk Bottles. Fill the bottle 
to the zero mark with water, or preferably wood alco- 
hol to which a little coloring matter has been added. 
Immerse the lower section of the tester, shown in Fig. 19, 
in the contents of the bottle. If the bottle is correct, the 
contents will rise to the 5% mark. Next immerse both 
sections of the tester which will bring the contents to 
the 10% mark if the bottle is correctly calibrated. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 57 

It has been learned that the volume of the graduated 
part of the neck is 2 c.c. Each section of the tester is 
made to displace 1 c.c. when immersed in the liquid, 
hence the two sections will just fill the scale if the latter 
is correct. 

The method recommended below for calibrating cream 
bottles may also be used with milk bottles. 

Calibrating Cream Bottles. According to Hunziker,* 
the most satisfactory method of calibrating cream test 
bottles is as follows (see Fig. 18) : Fill the bottle to 
the zero mark with water. Remove any drops adhering 
to the inside of the neck with a coiled piece of filter or 
blotting paper. Now slowly add measured amounts of 
water from an accurate burette graduated to at least 0.1 
c.c. Every 0.1 c.c. of water run into the neck is equiv- 
alent to 0.5% on the scale of an 18 gram cream bottle and 
1.0% on a 9 gram cream bottle. That is, with an 18 
gram 30% bottle, 6 c.c. of water would be required to 
exactly fill the scale on the neck. 

In calibrating milk and cream bottles, different parts 
of the neck should be tested as well as the neck as a 
whole. 

Calculating Speed of Tester. The speed at which 
a tester must be run is dependent upon the diameter of 
the wheel carrying the bottles. The larger this wheel 
the fewer the revolutions it must make per minute to 
effect a complete separation of the fat. 

In the following table by Farrington and Woll the 
necessary speed per given diameter is calculated: 

♦Bulletin No. 145, Indiana Experiment Station. 



58 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 20.— Steam Babcock Tester. 



Testing Cream. The testing of cream is explained 
in detail in Chapter VII. 



CHAPTER VI. 

COMPOSITE SAMPLING. 

Where milk is bought on the fat basis, it is essential 
that it be sampled daily as it arrives at the creamery. It 
is not practicable, however, to make daily tests of the 
samples because this would involve too much work. Each 
patron is therefore provided with a pint jar to which 
samples of his milk are added daily for one or two 
weeks, the sample thus secured being called a composite 
sample. A test of this composite sample represents the 
average percentage of butter fat in the milk for the period 
during which the sample was gathered. 

Careful experiments have shown that quite as accurate 
results can be obtained with the composite method of 
testing as is possible by daily tests, besides saving a great 
deal of work. This has lead to its universal adoption 
wherever milk is bought by the Babcock test. 

All composite jars should be carefully labeled by plac- 
ing numbers upon them. These numbers should be writ- 
ten in large indelible figures as exhibited by the composite 
jar shown in Fig. 24. Shelves are provided in the intake 
upon which the jars are arranged in regular consecutive 
order. Numbers corresponding to those on the jars are 
placed on the milk sheet opposite the names of the patrons 
which should be arranged alphabetically. 

Taking the Samples. Whatever the method of sam- 
pling, all milk should be sampled immediately after it 
enters the weigh can, not, as is frequently the case, after 
it is weighed. 

59 



60 MARKET DAIRYING 

Most of the sampling is done by either of two 
methods: (i) by means of a half ounce dipper, shown 
in Fig. 21, or (2) by means of long narrow tubes, one 
of which is shown in Fig. 22. 

The dipper furnishes a simple and easy means of 
sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed, 
and the variations in quantity from day to day are 
slight, the dipper method of sampling is accurate. 

The other method of sampling is illustrated by the 
Scovell sampler (Fig. 23). The main tube of the sampler 
is open at both ends, the lower of which closely fits into 
a cap provided with three elliptical openings. As the 
sampler is lowered into the milk the latter rushes through 
the openings filling the tube to the height of the milk in 
the can. When the cap strikes the bottom of the can 
the tube slides over the openings, thus permitting the 
sample to be withdrawn and emptied into the composite 
jar. 

This sampler has the advantage of always taking an 
aliquot portion of the milk, and furnishing an accurate 
sample when the sampling is somewhat delayed, because 
it takes as much milk from the top as it does from the 
bottom of the can. 

The McKay sampler (see page 66) works on the 
same principle as the Scovell and has proven very 
satisfactory. 

Preservatives. Milk cannot be satisfactorily tested 
after it has loppered owing to the difficulty of securing 
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to add some 
preservative to the composite samples to keep them sweet. 

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
sublimate, formalin, and bichromate of potash. All of 
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 



COMPOSITE SAMPLING 



61 





Fig. 22.— 


Fig. 23 •— 




Milk tWef. 


Scovell 


Fig. 21.— Milk 




sampling 


sampler. 




tube. 



where children, and others unfamiliar with their poison- 
ous properties, can not have access to them. 

The bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate can 
be purchased in tablet form, each tablet containing enough 
preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet for about two 



62 MARKET DAIRYING 

weeks. The tablets color the milk so that there can be 
no mistake about its unfitness for consumption. 

When colorless preservatives are used, like ordinary 
formalin and corrosive sublimate, a little analine dye 
should be added to prevent mistaking the identity of 
milk treated with these preservatives. 

During the warm summer time the bichromate of 
potash is not as satisfactory as either of the other two 
preservatives mentioned, because of its comparative weak- 
ness and liability to interfere with the test when too much 
of it is used. When the bichromate is used in the ordi- 
nary solid form not more than a piece the size of a pea 
should be used, otherwise a good, clear test is not possible. 

For spring, fall, and winter use, however, bichromate of 
potash is excelled by no other preservative, either in 
cheapness, or safety and convenience in handling. 

Care of Composite Samples. It is a duty which the 
milk buyer owes his patrons to keep the sample jars 
carefully locked up in the refrigerator when not in use 
so as to prevent the possibility of anyone's tampering with 
them. This will serve the additional purpose of excluding 
the light and heat from the samples, for they will keep 
but a short time when exposed to light and heat. 

When the sample jars are permitted to stand a few days 
without shaking, the cream which rises will dry and 
harden, especially that in contact with the sides of the 
jar, so that it becomes difficult to secure a fair sample 
on testing day without special treatment of the sample. 
This is prevented by giving the jar a rotary motion every 
time a sample of milk is added. 

It is important, too, that the covers of the jars fit tight, 
otherwise evaporation takes place, resulting in an in- 
creased test. In several instances the author has ob- 



COMPOSITE SAMPLING 63 

served that the sampler did not cover the jars at all ! 
Can we wonder why patrons complain so frequently about 
the testing? Where the jars are kept uncovered for sev- 
eral weeks the cream is in a condition in which it can 
not be reincorporated with the milk and the Babcock 
test in this case becomes truly a snare and delusion. 

Should the samples show any dried or churned cream 
on testing day, the sample jars must be placed in water at 
a temperature of no° F. for five or ten minutes to allow 
the cream or butter to melt. When this is done the 
sample for the test bottle must be taken instantly after 
mixing, as the melted fat separates very quickly. 

Frequency of Testing. It must not be supposed that 
if enough preservative can be added to the sample jars to 
keep the milk sweet for a month or longer that it is just 
as well to make monthly tests as weekly. Far from it. Even 
if the milk does remain sweet, the tendency of the cream 
to churn and become dried and crusty is in itself sufficient 
protest against monthly testing. It is rare, indeed, that 
samples that have been kept for a month or longer can be 
sampled satisfactorily without warming them in a water 
bath, which means a great deal of extra work. 

The best tests are secured when the samples are tested 
weekly or at most every two weeks. When the tests 
are made weekly it rarely becomes necessary to warm the 
samples if they have been properly cared for. Then, 
too, if an error is made anywhere in the testing, there 
are three other tests for the month that help to mini- 
mize it. It is not strange at all that a sample jar 
should break occasionally. If the jar should contain a 
whole month's milk the patron is deprived of his test for 



64 



MARKET DAIRYING 



that month. On the weekly basis of testing there would 
still be three tests to fall back on. 

Composite Cream Samples. When cream is received 
in good condition, the method of composite sampling may 
be employed in the same manner as with milk. The 
best results are always obtained, however, by testing 
each delivery of cream, and this practice is strongly 
recommended. Only samplers which take samples pro- 
portional to the amount of cream, are permissible in mak- 
ing composite samples of cream. 





Fig. 24.— Composite 
test jar. 



Glass top composite jar. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SAMPLING AND TESTING CREAM. 
CREAM SAMPLING AND SAMPLERS. 

Taking an Aliquot Sample. This means that the 
amount of cream taken for the composite test jar, must 
always be proportional to the amount of cream furnished. 
If cream always had the same richness, or if always the 
same amount were furnished, the dipper method of 
sampling would give satisfactory results, provided the 
cream was thoroughly mixed before sampling. But since 
we rarely find two batches of cream alike, either in quan- 
tity or quality, the necessity of taking an aliquot sample 
becomes apparent. This may be made perfectly plain by 
the following illustration : 

Feb. i patron X furnishes 50 lbs. of 20% cream. 
Feb. 2 patron X furnishes 30 lbs. of 30% cream. 
Feb. 3 patron X furnishes 20 lbs. of 40% cream. 

Dividing the 'total butterfat furnished during the three 
days by the total pounds of cream we get 27, which repre- 
sents the correct average test. This test would be secured 
by taking aliquot samples. The test by the dipper method 
would equal the sum of the three tests divided by three. 
Thus 20-}-30+4CK-3=30, the average test by the dipper 
method, differing from the correct average test by 3%. 
By the dipper method the same amount of cream is taken 
for a sample, regardless of the amount of cream fur- 
nished. 

65 



66 



MARKET DAIRYING 



Cream Samplers. While an aliquot sample is neces- 
sary only where composite samples are made, samplers 
taking an aliquot sample, like the Scovell, McKay and 
Michels, have the further advantage of securing a more 
accurate sample when the cream is not thoroughly mixed. 
These samplers take a uniform" sample from the top to 
the bottom of the cream in the can. The "milk thief," 
which also takes an aliquot sample, does not take as satis- 
factory a sample when the cream is not thoroughly mixed. 



Q 



±? 



fes^ a^ 




Fig. 25.— Michels sampler. 



Fig. 26.— McKay sampler. 



McKay Sampler. This consists of two tubes, one of 
which slides into the other. One side of each tube is 
open so that the cream enters along the entire side of the 



SAMPLING AND TESTING CREAM 67 

sampler. When the sampler is filled the tubes are turned 
with the openings qr slots at right angles to each other, 
thus closing the sampler and permitting the withdrawal 
of the sample of cream. See Fig. 26. 

Michels Sampler. This consists of a modified Scovell 
sampler heated in a tin heater as shown in Fig. 25. 

A is a steam and hot water reservoir with an inlet at 
B. The steam and hot water discharge through a circle 
of small openings at D. The condensed steam finds exit 
at C. £ is a Scovell sampler provided with a handle, G, 
and a circular piece of heavy tin, K, which holds the 
sampler in position and prevents the escape of steam. F 
is a strong wire attached to the cap which opens and 
closes the sampler. The wire ends at the top in a right 
angle turn, H, which rests across the top of the sampler 
when the latter is open. The construction of the heater 
prevents the entrance of water into the sampler and neces- 
sitates the use of but a very small amount of steam, which 
is admitted through the steam hose, /. The latter con- 
nects with the pipe, /, leading to the boiler. 

When ready to sample, remove the sampler from the 
heater, plunge at once to the bottom of the can of cream 
to be sampled, and remove quickly. While holding the 
composite sample jar in the left hand, discharge the con- 
tents of the sampler into it by pressing down on H with 
the thumb of the hand holding the sampler. Owing to 
the heated condition of the sampler, the cream discharges 
instantly and, what is equally important, all of it dis- 
charges. 

The sampler is accurate, quick, convenient and simple, 
and makes the sampling of heavy, rich cream, or thick, 
sour cream, no more difficult than that of milk. 



68 MARKET DAIRYING 

The McKay sampler can also be heated in the tin heater 
and is probably to be preferred to the modified Scovell 
sample for sampling extremely cold or extremely rich 
cream. 

Scovell Sampler and Milk Thief. These samplers 
are illustrated and described on page 61. 

SAMPLING AND WEIGHING AT THE) FARM. 

In addition to< the regular supply of empty, sterile 
cream cans, the cream gatherer should be provided with 
a pair of scales, a cream pail, tubes or jars for carrying 
the cream samples, a Gream stirrer and a sampling tube 
or a small sample dipper. The dipper may be used when 
the samples are tested after each delivery. Where com- 
posite samples are taken the sampling tube must be used 
owing to the daily variation in the quantity and quality 
of cream. 

Thoroughly mix the cream before taking the sample. 
This is best accomplished by pouring it several times from 
one vessel to another. If the cream is lumpy, the lumps 
should be broken up with the stirrer. Immediately after 
mixing the cream, a sample is taken and placed in the 
patron's sample tube or jar. The receptacle should be 
plainly numbered and provided with a tight-fitting cover. 
The cream is then weighed and poured into the regular 
supply cans. 

The samples should be carefully placed in a carrying 
case where they are protected from breakage and outside 
temperatures. Promptly on arrival at the creamery the 
samples are emptied into their respective composite sample 
jars, if the composite method of testing is followed. 

Where the cream is too thick for satisfactory sampling 



SAMPLING AND TESTING CREAM 69 

with the sampling tubes, a proportionate amount of cream 
may be measured by putting into a graduated tube, with 
a dipper, say one c.c. of cream for every pound of cream 
furnished. 

SAMPLING AND WEIGHING AT THE CREAMERY. 

There are several methods of weighing and sampling 
in vogue at the present time. One is to sample and 
weigh the cream in the cans in which it is delivered. In 
this case the sample is taken with a dipper or sampling 
tube after the cream has been thoroughly mixed with a 
stirrer. The cream is then weighed and emptied directly 
into the cream vat or into a receiving can. From the 
latter it may be conducted into the cream vat by gravity 
or by means of a pump. A better method of handling the 
cream is to pour it from one can to another several times 
before sampling. This insures better mixing than is pos- 
sible with the stirrer alone. But even where the cream 
is poured, the stirrer may be of value in supplementing 
the mixing, especially in case the cream is lumpy. Weigh 
the cream in the delivery can or the receiving can and 
run it by gravity into the cream vat. 

In case composite samples are made, an aliquot portion 
of cream must be taken by means of one of the sampling 
tubes. And where the cream is not thoroughly mixed be- 
fore sampling, the Scovell, McKay, or Michels sampler 
is preferred. 

All cream samplers except the Michels must be rinsed 
in hot water after each sampling. This is especially im- 
portant when sampling heavy cream. 

Where the cream is weighed in the cans, the weight of 
the empty can should be permanently marked upon it. 



70 MARKET DAIRYING 

TESTING CREAM. 

Frequency of Testing. Where the cream is delivered 
to the creamery in good condition, composite samples may- 
be taken in the same manner as with milk. Usually, how- 
ever, where a great deal of hand separator cream is 
handled, some of it is delivered in too bad condition for 
composite sampling. In this case it becomes necessary to 
test the cream as often as it is delivered. 

At present in many of the larger and in some of the 
smaller creameries, a test is made of each delivery of 
cream. This practice insures the most satisfactory tests, 
but requires more work than where composite samples 
are taken. On this account a great deal of cream is still 
tested by the latter method. 

Where composite samples are made, these are preferably 
tested once a week and should never be tested less than 
twice a month. See chapter on "Composite Sampling.'' 

Necessity of Weighing Cream. Accurate tests of 
cream can not be secured by measuring the sample into 
the bottle as is done in the case of milk. The reason for 
this is that the weight of cream varies with its richness. 
The richer the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. 
This is illustrated in the following table by Farrington 
and Woll; 



SAMPLING AND TESTING CREAM 



71 



Weight of fresh separator cream delivered by a 17.6 c.c. 

pipette. 



Percent of fat 


Specific gravity 


in cream. 


(weighed.) 


10 


1.023 


15 


1.012 


20 


1.008 


25 


1.002 


30 


.996 


35 


.980 


40 


.966 


45 


.950 


60 


.947 



Weight of cream 
in grams. 

17.9 
17.7 
17.3 
17.2 
17.0 
16.4 
16.3 
16.2 
15.8 



These figures plainly show that justice can not be done 
to patrons where cream is sampled with a 17.6 c.c. 
pipette. Cream is therefore always weighed on a cream 
scales, the amount necessary for a full sample being 
eighteen grams. 

Cream Bottles and Their Uses. Numerous styles of 

cream bottles are now 
upon the market. They 
range in length from six 
to nine inches with necks 
graduated from 30 to 
55%. The nine-inch 
bottles are graduated 
from 50 to 55% and re- 
quire special testers on 
account of their unusual 
length. These long- 
Fig. 27.-Torsion cream scales. necked bottles have the 
advantage of permitting the use of a full sample of 
cream which insures a more accurate reading than is pos- 
sible where only half a sample of cream is put in an 




72 



MARKET DAIRYING 



ordinary cream bottle, or where shorter wide-mouthed 
50% bottles are used. 




Fig. 28.— Cream scales. 



A cream bottle commonly used is the Winton 30% 
qgjp bottle, shown in Fig. 10. With this bottle only- 
half a sample (9 grams) of rich cream can 
be used. To the half sample of cream a scant 
half-measure of acid is added, and the testing 
finished in the usual way. What is better, 
however, is to add to the nine grams of cream 
approximately 9 c.c. of water and then use 
the full amount of acid. Obviously where only 
half a sample of cream is used in the ordinary 
bottle, the test must be multiplied by 2 to get 
the correct reading. 

Lately, a small bore cream bottle (Fig. 29) 
has been placed upon the market in which only 
half a sample of cream is used, but which gives 
a reading for a full sample. This does away 
Pig. 29— Nine with multiplying tests by 2 when only half a 

gram cream 
bottle. 




SAMPLING AND TESTING CREAM 73 

sample is used, and reduces the error in reading by one- 
half. The small bore of the neck also lessens any error in 
reading the test. 

In testing cream with this bottle, add 9 grams of 
cream, 9 c.c. of water, 17.6 c.c. of sulphuric acid and 
proceed with the test in the usual way, remembering that 
the fat column gives the reading for an 18 gram sample. 

Preparing the Sample. Before weighing the cream on 
the balance, care should be taken to thoroughly mix the 
sample by pouring and repouring a few times. Should 
the samples show any dried or churned cream, the sample 
jars must be placed in water at a temperature of about 
no° F. until the lumps of cream or butter have melted. 
When this is done the sample for the test bottle must be 
taken instantly after mixing, as the melted fat separates 
very quickly. In general, warming the sample jars some- 
what before sampling by placing them in warm water 
will facilitate the mixing and sampling of the cream. 

Making and Reading Cream Tests. The different 
steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in testing 
milk. However, as already stated, the cream must be 
weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore, 
special precautions must be used in reading the test. 

It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat 
column gives too high a reading. This error is due to 
the meniscus at the top of the fat column the size of 
which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington 
and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity 
of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus. 
This is the method commonly employed in reading tests. 
Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus 
by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red) 



74 MARKET DAIRYING 

to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests add- 
ing a few drops of fat-saturated alcohol to the top of 
the fat as a means of removing the meniscus. Ordinary 
alcohol has a solvent action on butter fat, hence the neces- 
sity of using fat-saturated alcohol. 

Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub- 
ject, has found "glymol" best suited for the removal of 
the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white 
mineral oil and is used for typewriters, sewing machines, 
etc. It will give satisfactory results without the addition 
of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by plac- 
ing a small cheese cloth bag containing "alkanet root" 
in a bottle of glymol for a day or two. One ounce of 
alkanet root will color one quart of glymol. 

A few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should 
be carefully added to the top of the fat column before 
reading the test. 

To get accurate readings the bottles should be read 
while the temperature of the fat is between 135 and 140 
F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed 
in a water bath having a temperature of 140 F. and 
kept there several minutes, or long enough to cool the 
fat to 140 F. The water in the vessel should extend 
to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably 
a little above. Accurate readings cannot be obtained by 
reading the bottles directly from the tester; the first 
bottles removed have too high a temperature while those 
removed last have too low a temperature. 

^Bulletin 145, Indiana Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

I. THE LACTOMETER AND ITS USE. 

This instrument, shown in Fig. 30, is used to determine 
the specific gravity of milk. The stem has two scales 
upon it, a thermometer scale at the upper end and a lac- 
tometer scale at the lower. The latter scale reads from 
fifteen to forty, being divided into twenty-five divisions, 
each of which reads one lactometer degree. The lower 
end of the instrument consists of two bulbs : an upper one 
containing the mercury for the thermometer scale, and a 
lower and larger one weighted with shot or mercury 
which serves to immerse and to keep in an upright posi- 
tion the large oblong bulb or float below the stem. 

Making the Test. In making a lactometer test the 
sample of milk is carefully mixed and placed in the 
lactometer cylinder. (Fig. 31.) The lactometer is now 
carefully lowered into it and enough milk is added to the 
cylinder to fill it brim full. Now place your eye in a hori- 
zontal position with the surface of the liquid and read 
down as far as the liquid will permit. The reading thus 
obtained is the correct lactometer reading, provided the 
temperature as indicated by the thermometer scale is 6o°. 

Corrections for Temperature. Lactometers are stan- 
dardized at a temperature of 60 ° F. ; but, since it is diffi- 
cult to have a sample always at this temperature, cor- 
rections may be made for temperatures ranging from 50 
to 70 . As the temperature rises the liquid expands and 
the specific gravity decreases. This decrease amounts to 

75 



76 



MARKET DAIRYING 



one-tenth of a lactometer degree for every degree of tem- 
perature above 60. A decrease in temperature would 
result in a corresponding increase in the specific gravity. 
For every degree below 60, therefore, we subtract one- 
tenth degree from, and for every degree above 60 we 





Fig. 31.— Lactom- 
eter cylinder. 



add one-tenth degree to, the lactometer reading. Ex- 
amples : 

1. Lactometer reading is 32.5 at a temperature of 55. 
Corrected reading is 32.5 less .5, equals 32. 

2. Lactometer reading is 31.7 at a temperature of 63. 
Corrected reading is 31.7 plus .3, equals 32. 

Interpretation of Lactometer Reading. In the chap- 
ter on milk we learned that normal milk has an average 



LACTOMETER AND ITS USE 77 

specific gravity of 1.032. This means that a tank that 
holds just 1,000 pounds of water would hold 1,032 pounds 
of milk. On the lactometer scale the 1.0 is omitted. A 
reading of 32, expressed in terms of specific gravity, 
would therefore read 1.032. 

Precautions in Making a Lactometer Test. 1. A 
lactometer test should not be made until three or four 
hours after the milk leaves the udder of the cow. The 
reason for this is that milk, immediately after it is drawn, 
holds mechanically mixed with it air and probably other 
gases, which tends to give too low a reading. 

2. The sample must be thoroughly mixed. If a layer 
of cream is allowed to form at the surface, the conse- 
quence is that the hollow oblong bulb will float in partially 
skimmed milk and give too high a reading. 

3. A dirty lactometer is certain to give a false reading. 
A lactometer should be washed in luke warm (not hot) 
water to which a little soda or other alkali has been added, 
and then rinsed off with clean water and wiped. 

II. MILK SOLIDS. 

The solids of milk include everything but the water. 
If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling temperature 
until all the water is evaporated, the dry, solid residue 
that remains constitutes the solids of milk. It is con- 
venient to divide the solids into two classes, one inclu- 
ding all the fat, the other all the solids which are not fat. 
In referring, therefore, to the different solids of milk, we 
speak of the "fat" and the "solids not fat" which, to- 
gether, constitute the "total solids." The amount of each 
of these different solids present in milk is easily seen from 
the composition of milk. Thus, besides water, milk con- 
tains : 



78 MARKET DAIRYING 



3-9% 


fat 


2.gfo 


casein 


0.5^ 


albumen 


4-0 


sugar 


o.yfo 


ash 



= g.fo= solids not fat. 



Total i2.9#=total solids. 

Relationship of Fat and Solids not Fat. In normal 
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
and the solids not fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
likewise rich in solids not fat. On the other hand, milk 
poor in fat is also poor in solids not fat. As a general 
rule, an increase in the solids not fat always accompanies 
an increase in the percentage of fat. The increase is, 
however, not quite proportionate, the fat increasing the 
more rapidly. 

Since the casein represents the most valuable constitu- 
ent of the solids not fat, the following ratio between this 
substance and the fat very well illustrates the relation- 
ship that exists between the fat and solids not fat in milk: 

According to Van Slyke. 

Per cent fat. Per cent casein. 

3-00 2.10 

3-25 2.20 

3-50 2.30 

3-75 2.40 

4- 00 2.50 

4-25 2.60 

4-5° 2.70 

Specific Gravity as Affected by Richness of Milk. 

The richness of milk seems to have but a very slight 
effect on its specific gravity. Usually a four per cent 
milk shows a slightly higher reading than a three per 



LACTOMETER AND ITS USE 79 

cent milk, but the specific gravity of a four per cent milk 
is practically the same as that of a four and one-half per 
cent milk. From what has been said about the relation- 
ship of the fat and solids not fat in milks of different 
richness, it is quite natural that the specific gravity of 
such milks should vary but little. If the fat alone were 
increased, the lactometer reading would naturally be de- 
pressed. But since the solids not fat increase in nearly 
the same proportion as the fat, the depression caused by 
the latter is compensated for by the former. 

Calculation of Milk Solids. The milk solids are cal- 
culated from the fat and the lactometer reading of milk. 
This is done by means of the following formula worked 
out at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station : 

Formula for solids not fat equals one-fourth L R plus 
one-fifth F, in which L stands for lactometer, R for 
reading, and F for fat. Expressed in another way, the 
solids not fat are obtained by adding one-fifth of the fat 
to one-fourth of the lactometer reading. The total solids 
are obtained by adding the fat to the solids not fat. 
Examples : 

i. To calculate solids not fat when the milk shows a 
lactometer reading of 31.6 and fat reading of 3.5. Sub- 
stituting these figures for the letters in the formula, one- 
fourth L R plus one-fifth F, we get : 

(Ql A Q K \. 

—j- plus -f-| equals (7.9 plus .7) equals 8.6 equals 

solids not fat. 

2. The total solids in the above sample are obtained 
by adding the fat and solids not fat. Thus : 8.6 plus 3.5 
equals 12,1 equals total solids. 



80 MARKET DAIRYING 

III. DETECTION OF MILK ADULTERATION — WATERING AND 
SKIMMING. 

A knowledge of the methods of detecting watering and 
skimming of milk is in many cases of considerable value 
to milk dealers, even when the milk is bought on the fat 
basis. Where the milk is bought irrespective of its fat 
content, such a knowledge is simply indispensable for the 
welfare of the business. 

In normal milk ranging in fat from 3% to 5%, it is 
not difficult to detect a moderate amount of watering and 
skimming. We speak of normal milk because this means 
the milk from a full milking and excludes colostrum milk, 
milk from diseased cows and those far advanced in lacta- 
tion. Normal milk cannot be expected when cows are 
either only partially milked, diseased, or very far ad- 
vanced in lactation. 

The accuracy of determining the amount of watering 
and skimming becomes greater in proportion as the sam- 
ple represents more cows. For example, no sample of 
milk from a herd consisting of six or more cows has been 
known to average below 3% fat. For this reason any 
sample of milk testing below 3%, when taken from a 
herd, is to be looked upon with suspicion. On the other 
hand there are records of individual cows that show tests 
as low as 1.7% and as high as 8%. It is owing to these 
extreme. variations in the composition of milk from indi- 
vidual cows, that small amounts of adulteration cannot 
be estimated with the same degree of accuracy in such 
milk as in herd milk. 

Detection of Adulteration. The general procedure in 
determining whether milk has been watered or skimmed, 
or both, is as follows : 



LACTOMETER AND ITS USE 81 

1. Determine the percentage of fat in the sample under 
consideration. 

2. Determine its specific gravity. 

3. From the fat and specific gravity calculate the solids 
not fat and total solids. 

4. Compare the results obtained with the average 
specific gravity, per cent of fat, solids not fat and 
total solids given for normal cows' milk, or compare 
with the legal State Standard. 

5. In drawing conclusions remember that 

a. Fat is lighter than water. 

b. Milk is heavier than water. 

c. Skimming increases the lactometer reading. 

d. Skimming slightly increases solids not fat. 

e. Skimming decreases fat and total solids. 

f. Watering decreases fat, solids not fat, lac- 

tometer reading and total solids. 

g. Watering and skimming decrease fat (ma- 

terially), solids not fat, and total solids. 
h. The solids not fat are less variable than the 

fat. 
i. . Skimming and watering may give a normal 
lactometer reading. 
From i it is seen that a normal lactometer reading 
is possible when milk is skimmed and watered in the right 
proportions. A lactometer reading without a Babcock 
test is therefore worthless. 

For herd milk a lactometer reading above 33.5 is posi- 
tive evidence of skimming when accompanied with a low 
percentage of fat. Herd milk showing a lactometer read- 
ing below 28 is considered watered. 

Examples of milk adulteration in which only herd milk 
is considered are given as follows: 



82 MARKET DAIRYING 

I. Suspected sample shows: Normal milk shows: 

Lactometer reading 32 Lactometer reading 32 

Fat 2.5 Fat 3.9 

Solids not fat 8.5 Solids not fat 8.78 

Total solids 11. o Total solids 12.68 

Conclusion: Sample is watered and skimmed because 
(a) lactometer reading is normal and fat low; (b) solids 
not fat are nearly normal and total solids low. 

2. Suspected sample shows: 

Lactometer reading 33 . 2 

Fat 3.1 

Solids not fat 8.92 

Total solids 12 . 02 

Conclusion: Sample is skimmed because lactometer 
reading is high and fat low. 

3. Suspected sample shows: 

Lactometer reading shows 29 

Fat 3.4 

Solids not fat 7 . 93 

Total solids 1 1 . 33 

Conclusion : Sample is watered because everything 
is much below normal, which is to be expected in the case 
of watered milk. 



CHAPTER IX. 

ACID TESTS FOR MILK AND CREAM. 

Milk dealers and buttermakers who have had years of 
experience do not find it safe to rely upon their noses 
in determining the acidity of milk or the ripeness of cream 
for churning. They use in daily practice tests by which 
it is possible to determine the actual amount of acid pres- 
ent. The method of using these tests is based upon the 
simplest form of titration. 

Titration. This consists in neutralizing an acid with 
an alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
when the point of neutrality has been reached. 

Acids and alkalies are substances that have entirely 
opposite chemical properties. The acid in milk gives it 
its sour taste, and for our purpose, illustrates very well 
what we mean by an acid. Ordinary lime may be used 
to illustrate what we mean by an alkali. 

When lime is added to sour milk the acid unites with 
the lime forming a neutral substance which is neither 
alkaline nor acid. If we keep on adding lime to the milk 
we reach a point at which all the acid has combined 
with the lime. This is called the point of neutrality. The 
moment this point is passed is made visible to the eye 
by means of the indicator, (phenolphthalein) which is 
colorless in the presence of an acid but pink in the 
presence of an alkali. One drop of alkali added to milk 
after the acid has been neutralized will turn it pink. 

83 



84 



MARKET DAIRYING 



In the tests used for milk and cream the alkali used 
is sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite 
strength so that the amount of acid can be calculated 
from the amount of alkali used. 

Kinds of Tests. There are two tests in general use 
at the present time: one devised by Prof. Manns and 

known as the Manns' Test; 

the other devised by Prof. 

Farrington and known as Far- 

rington's Alkaline Tablet Test. 

MANNS' TEST. 



The apparatus used in this 
test is illustrated in Fig. 32. 
It consists of a 50 c.c. burette, 
a 50 c.c. pipette, a small fun- 
nel, and a glass beaker with 
stirring rod. The alkali (not 
shown in the figure) can be 
bought ready made in gallon 
bottles and is labeled "neutral- 
izer." This alkali or neutral- 




Fig. 32.— Manns' acid test appa- 
ratus. 



izer is made by dissolving 
four grams of sodium hydroxide in enough water to make 
one liter solution. The solution thus formed is called a 
one-tenth normal solution, each cubic centimeter of which 
contains .004 of a gram of sodium hydroxide which will 
neutralize .009 of a gram of lactic acid. 

Making the Test. Measure 50 c.c. of cream with the 
pipette into the beaker, then with the same pipette add 
50 c.c. of water. Now add five or six drops of indicator. 
Next fill the burette to the zero mark with the neutralizer 



ACID TESTS 85 

and slowly run this from the burette into the cream, 
shaking the beaker after each addition of alkali. With 
the first few additions of alkali the pinkish color pro- 
duced quickly disappears. But when the point of neu- 
trality approaches, the color disappears very slowly and 
the neutralizer must be added drop by drop only. The 
moment the cream remains pink indicates that the acid 
has all been neutralized. The number of cubic centimeters 
of alkali added to the cream is then noted, and from this 
the percentage of acid is calculated according to the 
following formula: 

No. c.c. alkali X .009 
Percent acid = No . cx . cream X 100. 

Example: What is the percentage of acidity when 
30 c.c. of alkali are required to neutralize 50 c.c. of cream ? 

30 x .009 inA ' M . 
j^-^ x 100 = .54*. 

From the formula it is evident that any amount of 
cream may be used for a test. But more accurate results 
are obtained by using 50 c.c. than less. Where this 
amount of cream is always used the formula may be con- 
siderably simplified. 

Thus, by dividing the numerator and denominator by 50, the 
/ No. c.c. alkali X .009 \ 

expression I fh X 100 1 becomes (No. c.c. 

alkali X .009 X 2) or (No. c.c. alkali X .018). The acidity in 
the problem above would therefore equal 30 X .018 = .54$. 



HARRINGTON S ALKAUNE TABLET TEST. 

In the Farrington test the same alkali is used as in 
Manns', but in a dry tablet form in which it is more 



86 



MARKET DAIRYING 



easily handled than in the liquid form. Each tablet con- 
tains enough alkali to neutralize .034 gram of lactic acid. 
Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in 
Fig. 33 and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. 
pipette, and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered graduated glass 
cylinder. 




CrL/NDETFJ. 



Fig. 33 — Farrington acid test apparatus. 



Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough 
water to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dis- 
solved, which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution 
should be well shaken and is then ready for use. The 
solution of the tablets may be hastened by placing the 
graduate in a reclining position as shown in the cut. 

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution, 



ACID TESTS 87 

rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number 
of hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
lation of any kind is necessary. 

The acidity of milk may be determined in the same way 
as that of cream, except that the milk need not be diluted 
with water before adding the alkali. 

A Rapid Acid Test for Milk. Where milk is pasteur- 
ized it is often desirable to determine" approximately the 
acidity of each lot as it arrives at the creamery. 
It has been found that milk that contains more than .2% 
acid cannot be satisfactorily pasteurized. Farrington and 
Woll have devised the following rapid method for testing 
the acidity of milk that is to be pasteurized : 

Prepare a tablet solution by adding two tablets for each 
ounce of water. When the tablets have dissolved, take 
the solution into the intake. Now, as each lot is 
dumped into the weigh can a sample of milk is taken 
with a No. 10 brass cartridge shell and emptied into a 
teacup. With another, or the same, No. 10 shell add a 
measure of tablet solution to the cup. Mix the alkali and 
milk by giving the contents of the cup a rotary motion. If 
the milk remains white it contains more than .2% acid; 
if it is colored, there is less than .2% acid present. 

Where the tablet solution is prepared as above care 
must be taken to secure equal quantities of milk and 
solution for the test. 



88 MARKET DAIRYING 



PRECAUTIONS IN MAKING ACID TESTS. 

i. Always thoroughly mix the cream or milk before 
taking a sample for a test. 

2. Prepare the tablet solution and dilute the cream 
with water as nearly neutral as possible. Soft water is 
better than hard. 

3. Keep the tablets dry and well bottled. 

4. Keep the Manns neutralizer and the Farrington 
tablet solution carefully stoppered with a rubber stopper, 
as exposure to the air will weaken the solutions by absorb- 
ing carbonic acid. 

5. With the Farrington tablets it is best to prepare 
a new solution every day. 

6. Make the tests where there is plenty of light so 
that the first appearance of a permanent pink color can 
readily be noticed^ 

RELATION OE RICHNESS AND ACIDITY IN CREAM. 

In practice we find that the ripening is slower in rich 
than in poor cream. The reason for this is that the acid 
develops in the milk serum, which really should be used 
as the basis in measuring the degree of acidity, if this 
were possible. 

In a cream testing 25% we find that more acid must 
be developed to get the desired effects in cream ripening 
than is necessary in a 35% cream. This is so because in 
the 25 % cream we have the acid distributed through 75% 
milk serum, while in the 35% cream it is distributed 
through only 65% milk serum. 

If both the above creams show an acidity of .5%, this 
means that in the poor cream the .5 pound of acid is 
distributed through 75 pounds of serum, while in the rich 



ACID TESTS 



89 



cream it is distributed through only 65 pounds of serum, 
hence the latter must have the greater intensity of acidity. 
This may be graphically shown as follows: 



Poor cream. 




Rich cream. 


25 # fat. 




35% fat. 


75% serum. 
.5% acid. 


65% serum. 
.5% acid. 



In the illustrations above it is seen that the acid in the 
rich cream is distributed through less space than in the 
poor, hence the degree of acidity must be higher in tb^. 
rich cream. 

We find in practice where the same results are to be 
expected from the ripening process, a 25% cream must 
show about .6% acidity, while a 35% cream, about .5%. 

In bulletin No. 24 of the Washington Experiment Sta- 
tion, Prof. Spillman gives a table showing the required 
acidity for cream of different richness. 



CHAPTER X. 



CREAMING. 



Cause. Creaming is due to the difference in the speci- 
fic gravity of the fat and the milk serum. The fat being 
light and insoluble rises, carrying with it some of the 
other constituents of the milk. The result is a layer of 
cream at the surface. 

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( I ) 
That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four 
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas- 
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force 
is generated in the cream separator. 

ShalIow=Pan Method. The best results with this 
method are secured by straining the milk directly after 
milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter 
and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain 
undisturbed at room temperature (6o° to 65 ° F.) for 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is 
removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or 
by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it 
has been carefully loosened along the sides. The aver- 
age loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%. 

90 



CREAMING 



91 




Deep=Cold=Setting Method. The best results with 
this method are secured by using a can like the Cooley 
illustrated in Fig. 34. This can is provided with a cover 
which allows it to be submerged in 
water. It also has a spout at the 
bottom by which the skim milk is 
gently removed, thus preventing the 
partial mixing of cream and skim 
milk incident to skimming with a 
conical dipper. 

The milk is put into the cans di- 
rectly after milking and cooled to 
as low a temperature as possible. 
To secure the best results with this 
method the water should be iced. 
Where this is done the skim milk 
will show only about 0.2% fat. It 
it desirable to allow the milk to set 
twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the 
creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen 
hours. 

Dilution or Aquatic Separators. One of the most 
unsatisfactory methods of creaming is the addition of 
water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done 
in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers 
usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic sepa- 
rators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal 
separators are often lead to believe that they are buying 
real separators at a low cost when they are investing five, 
ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are 
no more entitled to the term separator than are the com- 
mon shallow pans. The average loss of fat with this 
system of creaming is about 1^2%. 



Fig. 34.— Cooley Can. 



92 MARKET DAIRYING 

Centrifugal Method (Cream Separator). Dairies hav- 
ing four or more cows should cream their milk by the cen- 
trifugal method, the cream separator. The saving of but- 
ter fat with this method soon pays for the cost of a sep- 
arator. Moreover it has the additional advantages over 
the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet 
skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of 
any desired richness. 

Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under 
favorable conditions a separator should not leave more 
than .05% fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test 
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
of skimming and these must be duly considered in making 
a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
ditions : 

A. Speed of bowl. 

B. Steadiness of motion. 

C. Temperature of milk. 

D. Manner of heating milk. 

E. Amount of milk skimmed per hour, 

F. Acidity of milk. 

G. Viscosity of milk. 
H. Richness of cream. 

I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see that 
the separator runs at full speed during the separating 
process. 

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
skim milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
the following conditions: (1) loose bearings, (2) sepa- 



CREAMING 93 

rator out of plumb, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) 
unstable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. 

C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
rator when the temperature falls below 60 ° F. A tem- 
perature of 85 ° to 98 F. is the most satisfactory for 
ordinary skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest 
skimming is obtained at temperatures above ioo° F. The 
reason milk separates better at the higher temperatures is 
that the viscosity is reduced. 

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
in skim-milk. The reason for this is that the fat heats 
more slowly than the milk serum, which diminishes the 
difference between their densities. When, for example, 
milk is suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera- 
ture to 85 ° F. by applying live steam, the loss of fat in 
the skim-milk may be four times as great as it is under 
favorable conditions. 

E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a marked 
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 

F. The higher the acidity of milk the poorer the 
creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim- 
milk becomes very great. 

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) 
bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase 
its viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming. 
Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
tures. 

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim- 



94 MARKET DAIRYING 

milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the skim- 
milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim-milk 
is richest. 

I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules in 
stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream than 
that produced in the early period of lactation. 

Regulating Richness of Cream. The richness of 
cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepa- 
rator bowl. When a rich cream is desired the screw is 
turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream 
it is turned away from the center. 

Advantages of Rich Cream. To separate a rich 
cream at the farm results in mutual benefit to pro- 
ducer and manufacturer. The main advantages are as fol- 
lows : (i) Less bulk to handle; (2) less cream to cool; 
(3) less transportation charges; (4) more skim-milk for 
the farmer; (5) better keeping quality; (6) allows more 
starter to be added; (7) gives better results in churn- 
ing, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, especially with 
sour cream. 

Best Time to Separate Milk.- The best results with 
a separator are obtained by running the milk through 
the machine immediately after milking. 

Saving of Butter Fat with a Separator. That the 
owner of four good cows can afford to invest $50.00 in a 
small cream separator is shown by the following: Four 
good cows will yield not less than 24,000 pounds of 
milk a year. By the common shallow pan method of 
creaming, the loss of butter fat will average 0.7 pound 
for every 100 pounds of milk. With the centrifugal sepa- 
rator the loss of fat will not average over 0.05 pound, 
hence there will be effected a saving of 0.65 pound of 



CREAMING 95 

butter fat in each ioo pounds of milk by the use of the 
separator. At this rate, the total saving of butter fat an- 
nually on the 24,000 pounds of milk will be 156 pounds. 
Since each pound of butter fat will yield approximately 
1 1-6 pounds of butter, 183 pounds of butter will be saved 
by the process, which, at 25 cents per pound, amounts to 
$45.75. This saving in butter fat alone will almost pay 
for the separator in one year. 

Fastening a Separator. To secure steady motion, 
the separator must be fastened to a solid foundation. 
There is nothing better in this respect than a concrete 
floor, with which every dairy should be provided. 

One of the best methods of fastening separators to con- 
crete floors is the use of expansion bolts. 

These consist of lag screws with tapering points pro- 
vided with malleable shields, having threads on their in- 
ner sides to fit the threads of the lag screws and pro- 
jections on their outer sides to catch and hold in holes 
made in the concrete. The shields expand as the lag 
screw is screwed in. 






Expansion Bolt. 

Heating Milk Before Separating. Milk received in 
a cold condition should be heated to about 85 ° F. before 
separating. There are two classes of heaters on the 
market for this purpose: those which admit the steam 
directly to the milk, known as direct heaters, and those 



96 MARKET DAIRYING 

which permit the steam to enter a jacket surrounding 
the milk, known as indirect heaters. Only indirect 
heaters should be used in heating milk to the separating 
temperature. 

The two main objections to the direct heaters are : (i) 
the liability of contaminating the milk with impure steam, 
and (2) the effect of the sudden heating upon the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk which may be quite considerable 
when the milk is heated through a long range of tem- 
perature. 

It is well known that the exhaustiveness of skimming 
with any separator is greatly influenced by the manner 
in which the milk is heated. In general very sudden 
heating has the effect of diminishing the difference in 
the specific gravity between the fat and milk serum, con- 
sequently rendering the separation of the fat from the 
milk more difficult. 

In experiments conducted by the author it was found 
that in many instances where the milk was received in 
a partly frozen condition and suddenly heated to a sepa- 
rating temperature of 8o° to 85 ° F., the loss of fat in the 
skim-milk was from .08% to .12%. 

The addition of water to the milk through the con- 
densation of the steam is .also objectionable in heating 
milk with steam direct. The practice of turning steam 
into milk should therefore be abandoned. 



CHAPTER XL 



COLD STORAGE. 



An efficient cold storage is an indispensible asset in 
the manufacture of ice cream and in the proper handling 
of market milk and cream. Too many try to economize 
in first cost at the expense of insulation. This is false 
economy because money spent in securing thorough in- 
sulation will save enough in ice or refrigeration to pay 
for the extra cost in a short time. 

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 35) shows a 
method of construction which has been found very 
satisfactory, especially in larger plants. It will be 
noted that the walls, floor and ceiling are insulated 
with cork, which is one of the best of insulating 
materials. It is necessary, however, to use every pre- 
caution to keep the cork free from moisture. Thorough 
treatment of the surface with asphalt will render it prac- 
tically waterproof. Two thin layers of cork are pre- 
ferred to one thick layer because the breaking of joints 
prevents leakage at the edges. 

The inside walls and any partitions are constructed 
of four-inch hollow tile lined with two courses of 1^ 
inches of sheet cork. 

Anteroom. Cold air is relatively heavy and when 
the storage doors open directly into a large warm room 
the air rushes out as though it were water, causing a 
considerable loss of cold. Such loss can be prevented 
to a large extent by providing an anteroom, which is 

97 



98 



MARKET DAIRYING 



simply a compartment about four feet wide and built 
along the front of the refrigerator. By having the 
anteroom doors closed when opening the refrigerator 
doors, little cold air will escape. 

SECOND STORY FLOOR 



i 4 inches Concrete 



I inch — Cement 



I>l inches Cork 



1 1^2. inch esCo 



RK \\ 



Cement Finish- 
Skewer — 



Cem ent Mortar- 
Cement Mortar 
Asphalt — 



YT-JQINTS-x 




Cement Finish- 



ASPHALT: 



►] \l INCH CEMENT FINISH" 



h 

o 

J 
J 
o 

r 

i 
u 

z 



<& 



4 inches Concrete 



I y^, inches Sheet Cork 



I ^ i nches Sheet Cork ^Q'NT5 






6 inches Cinders 



^Thin Layer Concrete 



I 

u 

E 

CO 
Of 

o 
111 
h 
lll 
•;- tc 

:'i u . 

.'.*/.:/ o*'. • 

'rV-O;-- 







V .1 »• t«*\\ 



FLOOR 

Fig. 3 .—Showing Cons r. ction of Cold Storage, 



COLD STORAGE 



99 



Doors i Special care should be exercised in securing 
tight-fitting doors with heavy flanges; they should also 
have the same degree of insulation as the other parts 
of the refrigerator. 

Forced Circulation of Air. To prevent dampness, 
mold and mustiness in cold storage rooms, circulation 
of air is absolutely essential. Usually a reasonable de- 




Fan 



Fig. 36.— Showing Method of Forced Circulation. 



gree of circulation is secured without resorting to 
mechanical methods of forcing, but forced circulation 
will produce the best results and is recommended for all 
large refrigerators. The refrigerating coils should be 
in a room separate from the cold storage as shown in 
the accompanying illustration (Fig. 36) which also 
shows the method of producing forced circulation. A 
fan located at the floor of the refrigerating room, 
forces the refrigerated air into the cold storage rooms, 
causing the warm air of the latter to escape through an 



100 



MARKET DAIRYING 



opening at ceiling, whence it passes over the refrigerat- 
ing coils. Here it becomes cooled and freed from its 
moisture, to be again forced into the cold storage room 
by means of the fan. 

Frequent removal of the ice accumulating on the 
refrigerating coils is necessary to maintain the best 
storage conditions. 




• Fig. 37.— Section Through Refrigerator Having Ice Chamber at One End. 

Natural Circulation. The best natural circulation is 
secured by having the refrigerating pipes in a room di- 
rectly above the cold storage. Air shafts are provided 
which conduct the cold air from the floor of the refriger- 
ating room to the floor of the cold storage room. Simi- 
lar shafts extend from the ceiling of the storage room 
to the top of the refrigerating coils. 



COLD STORAGE 



101 



Refrigerating Coils in Storage Room. Where 
forced circulation is not available, the usual method of 
cooling rooms for storage purposes is to arrange a series 
of direct expansion pipes at the ceiling and along the 
walls near the ceiling. In case the refrigerating machin- 
ery is not operated during the night it will be neces- 
sary to use a brine tank in addition to the direct expan- 
sion coils. The purpose of the brine tank is to store 




Fig. 37%— Insulated Ice House Joined to Refrigerator. From Bulletin 41, 
Minn. Dairy & Food Commission. 

cold to be drawn upon when the machinery is not 
running. The tank should be located near the ceiling 
where it will serve practically the same purpose as an 
overhead ice box. See page 297. 

Storage Rooms Cooled With Ice. In small dairy 
plants not provided with mechanical refrigerating ma- 
chinery, a refrigerator or cold storage with an ice cham- 
ber at one end is commonly used. The construction of 
the ice chamber is shown in Fig. 37. The ice chamber 



102 



MARKET DAIRYING 



is filled periodically from an adjoining ice house. 
A more satisfactory arrangement for refrigerating 
with ice is to have the ice house take the place of the 
ice chamber shown in Fig. 37^. This, of course, requires 
an ice house with the same degree of insulation as that 
of the refrigerator itself, because no saw dust is used 
in packing the ice. 



Connecting the refrigerator directly with the ice 




Fig. 38.— Ice Box for Small Dairymen. 

house dispenses with the handling of ice, produces bet- 
ter circulation and therefor results in a drier and cooler 
refrigerator. The increased circulation is due not so 
much to the larger mass of ice with which the air comes 
in contact as to the greater height of the ice house. Cir- 
culation may be reduced, if desired, by regulating or 
closing the opening at the ceiling by means of a slide 



Cold Storage for Small Dairymen. A temperature 
of 40 F. may be maintained in a simple ice box, con- 
structed as shown in Fig. 38. 



COLD STORAGE 103 

The box consists essentially of two boxes separated 
by one-inch strips placed at intervals of about one foot. 
Double thickness of building paper is placed on both 
sides of the strips and tacked to the boxes. A one-inch 
strip, two inches wide, covers the upper space between 
the one-inch strips, thus making a dead-air space between 
the two boxes. The construction of the cover is the 
same as that of the bottom, with the exception that 
there is a flange at the front and sides of the cover. The 
sides, bottom and cover of the refrigerator are built of 
three-quarter-inch tongued and grooved lumber, five and 
a half inches wide. The ends are constructed of one 
and one-eighth-inch tongued and grooved flooring three 
and a half inches wide. The inside of the ice box is 
lined with galvanized iron. A rope provided with a 
heavy weight and running over an overhead pulley, 
makes it easy to raise and lower the cover. A drain is 
provided at the bottom. The cost of such an ice box, 
7x2.5x2.5 feet, is approximately $30, including both labor 
and material. 

The efficiency of the ice box is materially increased 
by filling the one-inch space with granulated cork. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM. 

The term pasteurization is derived from the discoverer 
of the process, Pasteur, an eminent French scientist, who 
is justly called the Father of Bacteriology. Originally 
this process was applied to wines to rid them of un- 
desirable fermentations. Pasteurization as applied to 
milk and cream consists in heating and cooling milk and 
cream in a manner which will destroy the bulk of bac- 
teria in them, but which will leave their chemical and 
physical properties unchanged as far as possible. 

Advantages of Pasteurization. The advantages to 
be derived from pasteurization vary with the conditions 
under which the milk is produced and the efficiency with 
which the work is conducted. If the milk comes from 
dairies where disease and uncleanliness prevail, pasteur- 
ization will prolong the keeping quality of the milk and 
also materially lessen, or entirely eliminate, the danger 
from disease germs. If, on the other hand, healthfulness 
and cleanliness receive the exacting attention which pre- 
vails on certified dairy farms, comparatively little is 
gained by subjecting milk to the pasteurizing process. 

Under existing conditions, thorough pasteurization of 
milk and cream is desirable, for several reasons : In 
the first place average unpasteurized market milk con- 
tains over 1,000,000 bacteria per c. c, and none of this 
can be guaranteed free from pathogenic organisms. 
Milk that comes nearest to being free from pathogenic 
and other classes of bacteria, is certified milk, but even 

104 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 105 

this class of milk, in exceptional cases, contains disease 
producing bacteria. 

The large number of bacteria in average market milk 
is especially harmful to babies, because a large percent- 
age of the bacteria belong to the putrefactive and closely 
allied kinds, which in a large measure are responsible 
for the prevalence of diarrhea and general gastrointes- 
tinal troubles and, therefor, for the high mortality among 
infants and children. By properly pasteurizing milk, at 
least 95% of the general mass of bacteria may be de- 
stroyed, while all of the strictly pathogenic bacteria, like 
the typhoid and tubercle bacilli, may be entirely elim- 
inated. 

Pasteurization Growing in Popularity. Among 
large milk dealers, pasteurization has long been popular, 
partly because of the protection it has afforded them 
against spreading disease among their customers, but 
chiefly because of the material increase in the keeping 
quality of the milk resulting from this treatment. 

Until recently, however, consumers and health authori- 
ties have been divided as to the advisability of pasteur- 
izing milk for city trade. This attitude on the part of 
consumers and health authorities has largely been due 
to faulty methods and slipshod work which have been 
so characteristic of much of the pasteurizing work in 
the past. 

At present there is unmistakable evidence that pas- 
teurization of milk and cream for city trade is rapidly 
gaining favor, both among health authorities and the 
public in general. Two reasons may be given for the 
change in attitude toward pasteurization: First, the 
realization that no positive assurance can be given that 
raw milk is free from pathogenic bacteria ; secondly, the 



106 MARKET DAIRYING 

increased confidence of the public in the efficiency of the 
pasteurizing process, resulting from the gradual elimina- 
tion of the continuous or flash process and the substitu- 
tion therefor of what is known as the ''holding" or 
"held" process, by which the milk is kept at a tempera- 
ture of about 145 ° F. for 30 minutes or longer. 

With the continued increase in the efficiency of pas- 
teurizing methods, pasteurization of milk and cream for 
city trade is bound to increase in popularity. 

Processes of Pasteurization -. There are two proc- 
esses of pasteurizing milk and cream: (1) the "con- 
tinuous" or "flash" process by which the milk is per- 
mitted to pass in continuous stream through the pasteur- 
izer and is subjected, on an average, less than one minute 
to the pasteurizing temperature; (2) the "held" or 
"holding" process by which every particle of milk is 
heated from ten to sixty minutes according to the degree 
of heat employed. 

Obviously where milk is heated only a minute, a higher 
temperature must be employed than where the time of 
exposure is longer. With the "flash" method the tem- 
perature varies from 165 to 180 F. and the time of 
exposure averages less than one minute. In case of the 
"held" process, the temperature ranges from 140 to 
150 F. and the time of exposure from ten to sixty 
minutes. Low temperatures must be maintained for a 
longer time than high temperatures to accomplish the 
same result. The temperature and time of exposure 
should always be such as to insure the destruction of 
the tubercle bacillus, which is one of the most resistant 
of the disease bacteria most commonly found in milk. 

Objections to the Flash Process/ With the flash 
process reasonably satisfactory results in destroying bac- 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 107 



teria cannot be obtained unless the milk is heated to 
176 F. But a stream of milk coming from a flash 
machine and showing a temperature of 176 F., does not 
necessarily mean that every particle of the milk is heated 
to this temperature; indeed, quite the contrary is to be 
expected. It is easily conceivable that where milk passes 
through a machine in a constant stream, some particles 



176 




10' 20' 30 40 50 60 

Fig. 39.— Chart by Dr. North. 

will be heated higher than others, that is, some particles 
will exceed 176 while others will fall short of this tem- 
perature. It is generally conceded that perfectly uniform 
heating is practically impossible with the flash process, 
and for this reason it is perfectly possible for some 
bacteria with a thermal death point of 176 F., or even 
lower, to escape destruction by this process. 



108 MARKET DAIRYING 

In addition to the lack of uniform heating, the flash 
or continuous process has several other drawbacks, due 
to the relatively high temperature necessary to destroy 
the bacteria: (i) it materially interferes with the rising 
of the cream and therefore tends to destroy what is 
known as the "cream line;" (2) it tends to give milk a 
cooked taste; and (3) it tends to impair the digestibility 
of milk. 

In substantiation of the charges against the flash 
process, attention is called to the chart (Fig. 39) pre- 
pared by Dr. Chas. E. North of the New York City 
health department. 

In this chart the figures at the bottom represent min- 
utes, while those at the side represent degrees Fahren- 
heit. Starting at the top, there is a wavy line marked 
"salts" which shows that the salts of milk are not af- 
fected until exposed for one minute at 176 . At lower 
temperatures, a longer exposure is necessary to affect 
the salts. 

The dotted line marked "taste" shows that the taste 
of milk is affected by keeping it at a temperature of 
167 for several minutes. At 150 an exposure of 40 
minutes does not affect the taste of milk. 

The solid line marked "albumen" indicates that this 
constituent of milk is affected at an exposure of 165 ° 
for one minute. At an exposure of 40 minutes it does 
not become affected, until a temperature of 147 is 
reached. 

Looking next at the broken line marked "enzymes," 
it is seen that these digestive ferments of milk become 
affected at an exposure of 174 for one minute. At 
1 45 they do not become affected until an exposure of 
45 minutes is reached. 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 109 

Next is the heavy line marked with crosses, which 
indicates the time and temperature at which the cream 
line becomes affected. Thus it will be seen that one 
minute's exposure at 155 affects the cream line. At 
145 ° the cream line does not become affected until ex- 
posed for 35 minutes. 

The balance of the chart indicates the time and tem- 
perature at which some of the common disease pro- 
ducing bacteria are destroyed. Most resistant of the 
disease bacteria is the tubercle bacillus whose thermal 
death point is shown by the heavy line marked like a 
railroad track. An exposure of one minute at 176 , or 
20 minutes at 140 , will kill this bacillus. The typhoid 
bacillus is destroyed at an exposure of 150 for one 
minute, or 140 for ten minutes. Streptococci 
and the bacteria causing diphtheria are both destroyed 
by heating for one minute at 150 ; an exposure of 10 
minutes will destroy both at less than 140 . 

The two parallel light lines marked "red line" and 
running midway between the two heavy dark lines, in- 
dicate the line of safety in pasteurizing milk and cream. 
Going much below this line will not kill the tubercle 
bacillus and going much above it will affect the cream 
line. 

Dr. North properly draws the conclusion from this 
table that a temperature of 145 ° maintained for 25 
minutes is about the most ideal. 

Other Considerations in Pasteurization. While the 
foregoing chart, together with what has been said in 
regard to the lack of uniformity of heating, clearly con- 
demns the "flash" process as an unsafe and undesirable 
method of treating milk, there is another matter to con- 
sider which makes the "flash" process seem still more 



110 



MARKET DAIRYING 



undesirable as compared with the "held" process. Be- 
sides the disease bacteria mentioned on the chart, there 
are large numbers of other bacteria in milk some of 
which are even more difficult to destroy than the tuber- 
cule bacillus. These bacteria, while perhaps harmless 
to adults are known to have an irritating effect on the 
digestive system of babies and children. And because 
of these bacteria and as a matter of safety so far as 
bacteria in general are concerned, some of the leading 
city milk dealers have found it desirable to expose milk 
at 145 for an whole hour. These milk dealers have 
found it wise to pay less attention to the milk constituents 
and more to the bacteria. 

In the destruction of bacteria by the pasteurizing 
process, it is never safe to employ temperatures which 
closely approximate the thermal death point of those 
particular bacteria which it is desired to destroy. The 
ups and downs in the pasteurizing temperature, the in- 
accuracies in thermometers, and the changing conditions 
in the milk itself from one day to another, make it ad- 
visable to employ temperatures appreciably in excess of 
those absolutely necessary to destroy the bacteria un- 
der normal conditions. 

Milk that has been underheated is more dangerous than 
that which has not been heated at all. The reason for 
this is that inadequate heat in pasteurizing may destroy 
the lactic acid bacteria (which are easily killed) and by 
so doing actually better the conditions for the growth 
of the more resistant and obnoxious kinds. Lactic acid 
organisms are antagonistic to other classes of bacteria 
and are therefore a real safeguard to milk. This makes 
it plain that unless milk is pasteurized at a temperature 
which will destroy the pathogenic and non-acid bacteria 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM \\\ 

as well as the acid bacteria, it is far better not to heat 
it at all. 

Pasteurization should be condemned where its only ob- 
ject is to keep milk sweet. Its real object should be to 
destroy all actively growing bacteria and especially all 
disease-producing organisms such as the tubercle bacillus 
which is among the most resistant. 

The "Held" Process. In view of the large amount 
of data bearing upon the inefficiency of the "flash" process 
in pasteurizing milk, the wise milk dealer will equip 
himself with machinery by which milk can be held at 
a temperature of 145 yF. for 30 minutes or longer. 
There is no longer any question that to render milk safe 
from pathogenic bacteria it is necessary to employ the 
held or "holding" process of pasteurization. By this 
process all milk can be uniformly heated and held at 
the proper temperature long enough to insure the de- 
struction of all bacteria except those in a spore condi- 
tion. Fortunately the common pathogenic bacteria are 
not spore-bearing and hence are easily destroyed by this 
method of pasteurization. 

For general arrangement of machinery for pasteur- 
izing milk by "held" process, see Fig. 69, page 322. 

New York and Chicago Pasteurizing Regulations; 
In order to secure greater efficiency in pasteurizing milk, 
a number of cities have adopted ordinances making it 
necessary for milk dealers to heat milk to certain mini- 
mum temperatures. Thus New York City imposes the 
following restrictions with reference to temperature and 
time of exposure: 

No less than 158 degrees F. for at least 3 minutes. 

No less than 155 degrees F. for at least 5 minutes. 

No less than 152 degrees F. for at least 10 minutes. 



112 MARKET DAIRYING 

No less than 148 degrees F. for at least 15 minutes. 

No less than 145 degrees F. for at least 18 minutes. 

No less than 140 degrees F. for at least 20 minutes. 

Chicago has the following regulations : 

A uniform heating of 140 degrees F. maintained for 
20 minutes. 

A uniform heating of 150 degrees F. maintained for 
15 minutes. 

A uniform heating of 155 degrees F. maintained for 
5 minutes. 

A uniform heating of 160 degrees F. maintained for 
i J / 2 minutes. 

A uniform heating of 165 degrees F. maintained for 
1 minute. 

Necessity of Clean Milk for Pasteurizing. Con- 
trary to general public opinion, milk to be pasteurized 
must be especially clean to make it a safe food for 
babies. The reason for this is the fact that the pasteur- 
izing process does not destroy the bacterial spores which 
are always associated with unclean milk, and a large per- 
centage of these spores belong to the putrefactive kind. 
In ordinary unpasteurized milk, these spores are held in 
check by the rapid development of the lactic acid bac- 
teria, which are first to succumb in the pasteurizing 
process. 

The ordinary pathogenic bacteria are not spore-bearing 
but the putrefactive and many other obnoxious kinds of 
bacteria are spore-bearing. These putrefactive spores, 
which come from manure and other filth, develop rapidly 
in pasteurized milk kept at high temperatures. 

Importance of Low Holding Temperature. While 
filthy milk, as pointed out above, is rich in bacterial 
spores, there is perhaps no milk entirely free from them. 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 113 

On an average about 2 per cent of the total bacteria 
found in milk are present in the spore stage in which 
they cannot be destroyed by the pasteurizing process; 
hence the necessity of holding milk at such low tempera- 
ture as will prevent the development of these spores into 
actively growing organisms. These spores, if enabled to 
develop sufficiently, will impart undesirable flavors to 
milk; and, furthermore, it is these putrefactive kinds 
which are responsible, too, for a great many diarrheal and 
gastro-intestinal troubles of children. Pasteurized milk 
may appear perfectly sweet to the consumer but may be 
actually dangerous to children if it is kept at tempera- 
tures which will permit a rapid development of putre- 
factive and other kinds of spores. To keep pasteurized 
milk in a good condition, its temperature should not be 
allowed to exceed 50 F., and much lower temperatures 
are desirable. 

Viscogen. Thorough pasteurization reduces the vis- 
cosity or whipping property of cream. To assist in re- 
storing the original viscocity, a solution of sucrate of 
lime is added which is known as viscogen. This solu- 
tion is made by adding an excess of slaked lime to three 
parts of sugar dissolved in five parts of water. The 
mixture is allowed to stand twenty-four hours, after 
which the clear liquid at the top is poured from the 
sediment and preserved in a stoppered bottle at a low 
temperature. 

Add one part viscogen to about 150 parts of cream. 
Never add so much as to render the cream alkaline. 

While viscogen is entirely harmless, it is nevertheless 
an adulterant and cream treated with it must be labelled 
so as to indicate that it has been treated with viscogen. 

By holding pasteurized cream at low temperatures a 



114 MARKET DAIRYING 

sufficient length of time, its whipping property is suffi- 
ciently restored to make the use of viscogen unneces- 
sary. 

PASTEURIZING MILK IN BOTTLES. 

While the "held" process of pasteurization has been a 
big step in advance of the "flash" process, it does not 
fulfill all that is desired in ideal pasteurization. With 
both processes there is too much opportunity for rein- 
fection of the milk after it leaves the pasteurizer. The 
milk cooler, pipes, air, bottle caps, bottles and employes 
— all subject milk to possible contamination. To show 
the possible seriousness of such contamination, an in- 
stance is cited by Dr. C. E. North in which 85 cases of 
typhoid fever were traced to milk which had become 
infected through a "typhoid carrier" whose business it 
was to cap the bottles. 

It is evident that the only way to avoid reinfection 
is to pasteurize the milk after it has been bottled and 
capped, and a fairly large number of milk dealers are 
already pasteurizing milk in this way with very satis- 
factory results. 

Bottle Caps. To pasteurize milk in bottles, water- 
tight caps are necessary. Metallic caps lined with paraf- 
fined paper discs, are now used to a considerable ex- 
tent, not only where milk is pasteurized in bottles but 
for ordinary handling of milk as well. These caps are 
similar to those used on beer bottles and are fastened in 
a similar manner, thus sealing the bottles against en- 
trance of air and water as well as against possible 
tampering with the contents. Special bottles and machin- 
ery for applying the caps are now available everywhere. 

Pasteurizing Apparatus. The practicability of pas- 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 115 

teurizing bottled milk on a commercial scale is shown 
by Dr. C. E. North in Medical Record for July 15, 191 1. 
Dr. North has found that the apparatus used by brewers 
in pasteurizing bottled beer, can be adapted to pasteur- 
izing milk in bottles with satisfactory results. The re- 
sults obtained by him in pasteurizing milk for thirty 
minutes at a temperature of 148 F. in a beer pasteur- 
izer, are shown in the following paragraphs : 

"Raw milk, bacteria per cubic centimeter in the several 
samples, 250,000; 450,000; 200,000; 900,000; 70,000. 

Pasteurized top layer, bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
500 ; 100 ; 300 ; 2,100 ; 500 ; 600 ; 100 ; 500 ; 200 ; 400 ; 200 ; 
200. 

Pasteurized second layer, bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
1,000; 400; 200; 600; 1,000; o; 100; 200; 100; 200; o; 
400. 

Pasteurized third layer, bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
800 ; 2,500 ; 400 ; 200 ; 300 ; 600 ; 300 ; 500 ; 300. 

Pasteurized fourth layer, bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
600; 400; 600; 300; 1,800; 400; 300; 600; 400; 300; 
100." 

Commenting on the low bacterial counts obtained in 
these experiments, Dr. North says: "I have never be- 
fore obtained from any pasteurizing apparatus of the 
commercial type results which nearly approached these 
in excellence." He further adds: "In less than an 
hour after leaving the pasteurizer, the milk in all of the 
bottles had developed a distinct cream line, and the 
amount of cream appearing at the top of each bottle was 
sufficient to indicate that the rising of the cream had not 
been in any way impaired. The milk was pleasant to 
the taste and possessed no odor or taste which would 
suggest that it had been heated." 



U 6 MARKET DAIRYING 

The beer pasteurizing apparatus works automatically, 
the bottles passing successively from one compartment 
to another until the pasteurizing is completed. The 
water in the first compartment registers about no° F. 
From this point on, the water grows gradually hotter 
until the proper pasteurizing temperature has been 
reached, and then gradually drops to 6o° F. These 
machines have been adapted for milk by adding another 
compartment in which the milk can be cooled below 50 F. 
During the pasteurizing the bottles are completely im- 
mersed, and the results with beer as well as with milk- 
have been found more satisfactory when the pasteurizing 
is done with water than when steam is used. 

Undoubtedly apparatus will soon be found upon the 
market which will answer the purpose of small milk 
dealers. Many of the smaller milk dealers are now pas- 
teurizing bottled milk in a simple water tank. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

HOW TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET. 

Quality. As a rule it is easy enough to secure some 
kind of a market, but to secure the best frequently re- 
quires considerable effort. To get fancy prices requires 
first of all that the product be of superior quality. This 
is particularly true of milk. The extensive agitation in 
recent years for clean, pure milk has had the effect of 
putting a high premium upon such milk. The public is 
becoming aware of the dangers which lurk in dirty, un- 
sanitary milk and is willing to pay a good price for milk 
whose wholesomeness is unquestioned. 

Value of Advertising. To obtain big prices it is not 
enough to have products of superior quality, but what- 
ever particular merits they have must be forcibly brought 
to the attention of consumers. In other words, a certain 
amount of advertising is necessary. 

It is good policy to furnish prospective customers a 
few free samples and to distribute leaflets describing the 
conditions under which the products are produced and 
handled. If the milk is produced in clean, ventilated, 
whitewashed stables, and from cows which are regularly 
tested for tuberculosis; if the milk is handled by clean, 
healthy attendants and is thoroughly cooled and aerated 
immediately after milking; and if, in addition, all this 
is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in 
prices and patronage is certain to follow when such facts 
are placed before the public. 

117 



118 MARKET DAIRYING 

The majority of city consumers have little conception 
of the conditions under which average milk is produced. 
For this reason the man who is producing clean milk will 
find it highly profitable to place in contrast vivid pictures 
of the conditions that yield average milk and those that 
yield sanitary milk. 

Investigate Outside Markets. Often outside mark- 
ets offer better prices for milk and cream than does the 
home market. This is especially true of cream. This 
product permits of long distance shipping and many out- 
side markets may be glad to get it at fancy prices when 
the home market may be entirely overstocked. 

Dairymen must not expect the market to come to them, 
however ; they must seek the market. A visit or corre- 
spondence with managers of cafes, hotels, restaurants, 
drug stores and ice cream manufactories in different 
cities, is frequently the means of securing more business 
and better prices. 

Where one is just starting in the dairy business or 
trying new markets, it is good policy, as a rule, not to 
ask very high prices at the start. First demonstrate the 
merits of your products. If these are of a high order 
consumers will gradually respond to demands for in- 
creased prices rather than lose the products. Too high 
prices at the start are likely to discourage prospective 
buyers, and thus deprive you of an opportunity to prove 
the value of your goods. 

Uniformity. One of the essentials in building up a 
good market is uniformity of product. Where this is 
lacking, improvements in other directions will be of little 
avail. On the other hand, products which are uniformly 
the same, week after week, and month after month, are 



TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET 119 

likely to command good prices even when of only medium 
quality. 

Punctuality. Another essential in building up a good 
market is punctuality. If your customer expects his milk 
at 7:30, do not deliver it at 7:40; deliver early rather 
than late. If you are shipping cream or milk you cannot 
afford to miss your train — even a single time. It gen- 
erally means greater disappointment at the other end of 
the line than one would anticipate. 

Try to Please. Always put yourself in an attitude 
to please. If criticisms come concerning your products, 
you cannot afford to resent them. Usually there is reason 
for the criticism. Try to discover the trouble and remedy 
it. 

Delivery Outfit. Cleanliness and neatness must char- 
acterize the dairy business throughout. Milk wagons, 
cans, bottles, drivers, etc., must present a clean appear- 
ance. Where they do not, it is usually an easy matter 
to surmise the condition of milk. 

Use a Trade Mark.- The name or monogram of the 
dairy, placed upon the products and delivery wagons, 
guarantees genuineness and will materially assist in se- 
curing a better and more extended market. It is one 
of the best ways of advertising a superior product. 

Secure Your Market Early. If it is intended to sell 
cream for manufacture into ice cream, it is important 
to get a market early in the spring. It is difficult to find 
one in the flush of the ice cream season, because ice cream 
dealers, as a rule, contract considerably in advance of 
the time they need the cream. If it is intended to supply 
winter resorts, apply for the market early in the fall. 
What has been said here with reference to cream applies 
also to milk. 



120 MARKET DAIRYING 

Secure Reliable Customers ; Where milk and cream 
are shipped some distance, it is important to determine 
beforehand the reliability of the buyer. As a rule it 
is good policy not to make more than three shipments 
before the first has been paid for. It is well, even where 
milk and cream are sold locally, to investigate the stand- 
ings of customers before their accounts have run up very 
high. 

Selling Direct to Consumers. No argument is need- 
ed to show the advantage of selling dairy products direct 
to consumers wherever this is possible. It means the 
elimination of the middleman whose profits are saved to 
the dairyman. 

Letterhead Stationery. It is not only businesslike 
to use stationery with a suitable letterhead, but it also 
serves to advertise the business. The following is sub- 
mitted as a suitable form of letterhead : 

Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 

J. C. Boone, Prop. 

Dealer in 

Pure, Bottled, Jersey Milk and Cream 

from Tuberculin Tested Cows. 
Reidsville, N. H 190. . 



CHAPTER XIV. 

MARKETING MILK AND CREAM 
RETAILING. 



Dip Method. The old method of hauling milk to the 
city in five, eight or ten gallon cans and removing each 
patron's allowance by means of a dipper or faucet, has 
been found so objectionable that the practice has been 
largely abandoned. The principal objections to this 
method are: (i) The admission of 
dust and bacteria to the milk while 
measuring it; (2) the use of unsteri- 
lized milk vessels by consumers; (3) 
exposure of the vessels to dust while 
on the steps of the consumer; (4) the 
use of unclean vessels by milkmen in 
measuring each customer's share; (5) 
lack of uniformity in the milk, espe- 
cially if removed from the cans by 
means of a faucet, in which case the 
first drawn milk is likely to be lowest 
in fat content; and (6) the possi- 
bility of drivers tampering with the 
milk. 

The Use of Bottles. Milk and cream intended for re- 
tail trade should be put into pint or quart bottles, for 
reasons cited above. The advantages of this method 
are apparent from the fact that the milk is bot- 
tled immediately after cooling and that it may be 




Milk Bottle. 



121 



122 MARKET DAIRYING 

kept in the same bottle until it is to be consumed. 
Whenever milk is changed from one vessel to another 
there is always more or less contamination from dust and 
bacteria. 

Bottling. For dairies having from ten to twenty 
cows, a can or vat provided with a sanitary faucet will 
do satisfactory work in filling bottles. A pouring can 
with a slightly curved spout may also be used for this 
purpose. 

For large dairies special bottle fillers will be found 
advantageous. These machines fill from two to twelve 
bottles at a time. In selecting a bottle filler secure one 
of simplest construction. This is important for sanitary 
reasons. 

Whatever method of filling is used, it is important to 
keep the milk well stirred while filling, so as to insure 
uniform quality in all the bottles. 

Special machines are now on the market for capping 
bottles. With the larger machines it is possible to cap 
many thousands of bottles in a day. The machines not 
only have the advantage of rapid capping, but eliminate 
possible infection from the hands where the capping is 
done by hand. 

The tendency at present is to seal the bottles with 
hermetic seals similar to those used on beer bottles. 
This insures against tampering, protects the lips of the 
bottles and makes possible pasteurization of the milk 
in bottles. A bottle ^o capped is shown in Fig. 40. 



RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 



123 



The bottles should be capped immediately after filling 

and only the best quality of caps should be used. Caps 

which lack stiffness or which have been poorly paraffined 

usually can be bought cheaply but they 

will prove expensive at any cost. 

During bottling the room should be 
kept damp to keep the air free from 
dust and bacteria. No air currents 
should be allowed to sweep in from the 
outside. Only clean laundered white 
suits should be worn by those in charge 
of the cooling and bottling. 

Milk Bottle Delivery Cases. On de- 
livery wagons the bottles are carried in 
cases holding twelve or more bottles 
each. These cases are made of galvan- 
ized iron or wood, or of both, and have 
light removable partitions inside, separ- 
ating the bottles to keep them from 
breaking. Galvanized iron cases, like that shown in 




Fig. 40.— Bottle 
Capped with Her- 
metic Seal. 






Fig. 41.— Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle Case. 



Fig. 41, are the most sanitary and also permit putting 
crushed ice around the bottles. 



124 MARKET DAIRYING 

Fig. 42 shows a galvanized iron milk bottle case, 
enclosed by a box made of one-inch boards and pro- 
vided with a tight fitting cover. Cases of this kind should 
be used in warm weather to keep the milk cool during 




Fig. 42 —Insulated Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle 



delivery. On especially warm days, crushed ice should 
be used around the bottles. This style of case is also 
recommended where bottles are shipped. 

A great deal of milk is spoiled while in transit to the 
consumer. The last milk delivered on the route may 
be on the road five or six hours before it finally 
reaches its destination. If carried in open, uniced cases, 
on warm days, an exposure of such duration may easily 
shorten the keeping quality of the milk by eight or more 
hours. 

A matter of prime importance in delivering milk in 
bottles is to have them thoroughly sterilized before using. 
Unless this is done milk will not keep long and, what is 
worse, is likely to disseminate disease along the route. 



STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM 125 

This danger is due to the bottles' passing from one home 
to another and eventually reaching a home in which there 
is some cantagious disease. Ir. such cases there is always 
a probability that the bottles may become infected with 
the disease germs. 

Frequency of Delivering Milk. When milk is cooled 
to 45 F. or below immediately after milking and is 
held at this temperature until it reaches the consumer, one 
delivery a day is sufficient. If it is desirable, however, 
to make two deliveries a day, these should be made inde- 
pendent of the milking; that is, the night's milk should 
be delivered in the morning and the morning's milk in 
the afternoon. 

In some sections, especially in the south, milk is sold 
with little or no cooling whatever. Hence, the practice 
of delivering the morning's milk before breakfast, and 
the night's milk before supper. This practice requires 
the first milking to be done shortly after midnight and 
the second milking shortly after midday, a drudgery 
wholly unnecessary and easily obviated by thoroughly 
cooling the milk. 

Delivery Wagons. These should be clean, covered, 
well painted, and provided with good springs. The name 
of the dairy should be printed on each side. A neat and at- 
tractive delivery wagon is essential in building up a good 
trade. 

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM. 

This is a process by which milk and cream are brought 
to a definite percentage of fat. Cream producers are 
called upon to furnish cream of a definite richness, and 
different grades may be demanded by different buyers. 
The simplest way to meet such demands is to have the 
separator deliver cream somewhat richer than the rich- 
est grade called for and to reduce this to the required 
richness by adding skim-milk. 



126 MARKET DAIRYING 

Reducing Cream with Skim=milk. When a definite 
quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine 
first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves the 
separator) required according to the following rule: '* 

Rule : Multiply the number of pounds of standardized 
cream called for by its test and divide the product by the 
test of the original cream. 

The difference between the amounts of original and 
standardized cream represents the amount of skim-milk 
required. 

Problem: How many pounds each of 45% cream and 
skim-milk (zero test) are required to make 60 pounds of 
18% cream? 

Applying the above rule we get, 

(60 X 18) -^45 = 24 — No. lbs. of original cream. 

60 — 24 = 36 = No. lbs. of skim-milk. 

Milk may be standardized in the same way. 

Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and 
Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding two 
formulas the test of the skim-milk was considered zero. 
When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the 
calculation becomes more difficult. Pearson, however, 
has devised a method by which calculations of this kind 
are very much simplified. This method is as follows: 

Draw a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below. 
At the left hand corners place the tests of the milks or 
creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness 



STANDARDIZING MILK 'AND CREAM 



127 



desired. At the right hand corners place the differences 
between the two numbers in line with these corners. 
The number at the upper right hand corner represents 
the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the 
richness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Like- 
wise the number at the lower right hand corner repre- 
sents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with 
the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner. 

Example: How many pounds each of 30% cream 
and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream? 



30% r==Zr ~^I 21.5 Lbs. 




3.5 %\^— — ^J ^ LBS. 



21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number 
of pounds of 30% cream needed; and 5, the difference 
between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5% 
milk needed. 

From the. ratio of milk and cream thus found, any 
definite quantity is easily made up. If, for example, 300 
pounds of 25% cream is desired, the number of pounds 
each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol- 
lows: 

21.5 + 5 = 26.5 

21.5 

X 300 = 243.4, the number of pounds 

of 30% cream. 



26.5 

5 
26.5 



X 300 == 56.6, the number of pounds 

of 3.5% milk. 



128 



MARKET DAIRYING 
SHIPPING MIIvK AND CREAM. 



The essential things in shipping milk and cream are 
cleanliness and low temperature. It is possible to keep 
milk and cream in good condition for two or three days, 
if produced and handled under cleanly conditions and 





Fig. 44. -Milk Can. 



Fig. 45.— Felt Jacket on Can. 



cooled directly after milking to 40 F. or below. This 
low temperature must be maintained when long keeping 
quality is desired. Every dairy should be provided with 
a good ice box or refrigerator, into which milk and cream 



SHIPPING MILK AXD CREAM 



129 



may be placed immediately after cooling and in which 
they may be kept until ready for shipment. 

Shipping in Cans. Various insulated cans are now 
upon the market and a number of these have been tested 
by the author. The tests showed that these cans possess 
about the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that 
are commonly 
wrapped around ordi- 
nary milk cans. Since 
the latter, as a rule, 
are more durable and 
more easily handled, 
they will be found 
more satisfactory 
when wrapped with a 
felt jacket than the so- 
called insulated ship- 
ping cans. 

When milk and 
cream are cooled close 
to freezing and placed 
in ordinary milk cans 
wrapped in felt jack- 
ets, they may be safe- 
ly shipped to any 
point that may be 
reached within 
24 hours even 
i n warm weather. 
If the temperature of the milk and cream at the time of 
shipment is 50 F. or higher, then long distance ship- 
ment is best accomplished by the use of an ordinary can 
placed inside of a covered ice cream shipping tub con- 
taining ice. Such a tub has practically the same in- 




Fig. 46.— Screw Top Can. 



130 MARKET DAIRYING 

sulating effect as a felt jacket, but is rather heavy and 
cumbersome and should not be used except in cases where 
it is necessary to pack ice around the cream or milk. The 
best results from the ice are secured by packing it in 
large lumps around the neck of the can. 

Shipping in Bottles. Where milk and cream are 
shipped in bottles, the latter should be placed in insulated 
delivery cases (Fig. 43) and surrounded with crushed 
ice. The cases should have the owner's address on them 
and must be kept locked while in transit. 

Mode of Shipping. The usual way of shipping milk 
and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections bag- 
gage rates are available. These rates are lower than ex- 
press rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by 
special arrangement with the railroad companies. 

Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance 
of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A con- 
siderable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly ad- 
hering to this practice. Insist upon getting the lowest 
rates possible. 

Pointers on Shipping. Have the name and address 
of your dairy permanently marked in brass upon every 
can and cover ; also have it sewed or stitched on the felt 
jackets. This is necessary to insure the return of your 
own goods. The name and address will be put upon the 
cans and covers by the dealer from whom they are pur- 
chased, if so requested; or, in case unmarked cans are 
already on the premises, the brass plates with the name 
and address may be purchased from dairy supply firms 
and placed upon the cans and covers by a local tinner. 

Even when labeled as indicated above, cans will oc- 
casionally get lost. Empty cans are usually returned free 
of charge and, for this reason, express receipts are com- 



SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 131 

monly not taken for them. This is a mistake. If the 
purchaser of your products will take a receipt for the 
empty cans, the express company becomes responsible for 
them in the event they are lost. Without the receipt it 
is next to impossible to claim damages for lost goods. 

The empty cans should be washed before they are re- 
turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well 
as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived 
unless washed and dried immediately after use. 

Another matter of importance in shipping is to have 
the cans full to prevent churning. 




Fig. 47.— Lead Seal and Seal Press. 

It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent 
tampering with the contents. The sealing is easily accom- 
plished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 47). 

In delivering the cream or milk at the station the de- 
livery man should see to it that the cans are put in as 
cool a place as possible. 



CHAPTER XV. 
profitable; side lines. 

Only a comparatively few of the thousands of milk 
dealers are as yet making use of the full possibilities 
of their business. It has always been taken for granted 
that milk and cream must be delivered daily to have 
them reach the consumer in a wholesome and palatable 
condition. Yet the same may be said about cottage 
cheese, buttermilk, cultured milk, club cheese, butter, 
eggs, ice cream, cream cheese and Neufchatel cheese, 
Pimento and other fancy cheeses. 

The sale of some of these products could be infinitely 
increased by supplying them in as good a condition as 
milk and cream, but to do this requires that they be 
delivered in just as fresh and palatable a condition. 

Fancy Cheese; The soft and fancy varieties of 
cheese are appreciated by all classes of people; their 
wholesomeness when fresh is superior to meat and their 
cost as a rule is considerably less. But what an insig- 
nificant amount of this class of cheese is consumed at 
the present time! If these perishable products would be 
manufactured by the milk dealers and delivered by them 
in a fresh condition, the consumption of soft and fancy 
cheese could undoubtedly be increased a hundredfold. 

At present these cheeses are shipped at heavy cost 
from manufacturer to city wholesaler who, in turn, de- 
livers them to the grocery stores — a roundabout way of 
handling that is both costly and unsatisfactory because 

132 



PROFITABLE SIDE LINES 133 

the cheese is too old when it reaches the consumer. Of 
course the average milk dealer may know nothing about 
fancy cheese making, but he can learn as easily as any- 
one. The man whose business is continually expand- 
ing is the one who is continually expanding in knowl- 
edge. 

Eggs and Butter. Eggs and butter must be sold 
more direct in the future than they have been in the 
past, because their perishable nature does not permit of 
the roundabout method of marketing practiced at the 
present time. What an enormous saving there would 
be in middlemen charges and in reduced cost of de- 
livering by having one wagon, the milkman's wagon, 
carry the various perishable dairy products on a single 
trip which now require half a dozen or more trips! 

Ice Cream. Think of how much cheaper the milk 
dealer could furnish ice cream to his customers than 
the exclusive ice cream manufacturer who frequently 
must drive an extra two miles to make a single delivery. 
Of course, those city consumers who have no ice may 
not be in a position to handle the milk dealer's ice cream 
to best advantage, but most of the consumers of ice 
cream do have ice during the summer. Those cus- 
tomers who insist upon having their ice cream delivered, 
say, an hour before they expect to use it, let them 
patronize the city ice cream plant. It is quite certain, 
however, that the reduced cost at which milk dealers 
can deliver ice cream will secure for them the bulk of 
ice cream trade among those whom they are supplying 
with milk. 

Cultured Milk. The possibilities for well made cul- 
tured milk are practically unlimited. Already many 
large milk dealers are catering to the demand for this 



134 MARKET DAIRYING 

product and the sale has increased enormously during 
the past few years. It is a product that should be 
supplied by all milk dealers, large and small. There is 
no drink which, by reason of its food and tonic value, 
relative cheapness and general wholesomeness, is so much 
entitled to become the leading of all beverages. It is 
up to the milk dealers to make this the national drink 
for all classes, rich and poor. 

Skimmilk=Buttertni1k. Well made skimmilk-but- 
termilk is very palatable and quite as wholesome as 
cultured milk ; indeed in a sense it is cultured milk, but 
this term should not be applied to fat-free milk. This 
product is especially commendable because of its cheap- 
ness. It answers all purposes of buttermilk and, when 
made right, is superior in quality. 

Reduced Delivery Expenses. Most of the milk 
dealers are running one-horse delivery wagons, and the 
sooner the milk dealer can add enough to his wares 
to run a two-horse delivery, just so soon will he be 
able to reduce the cost of delivery. Labor is expensive 
these days, and the labor with a two-horse wagon is 
no greater than that with the one-horse wagon. The 
milk dealer ought to be able to carry enough load on 
his route to justify the use of two horses to each wagon. 
The additional side lines suggested would soon double 
the milk dealer's load and would enable him to use 
two horses instead of one. If these additional lines 
would do nothing more than enable every driver to 
drive two horses and a whole load instead of one horse 
and half a load, the undertaking would be justified. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

STARTERS, OR LACTIC ACID CULTURES. 

The value of carefully selected cultures of lactic acid 
producing bacteria in cream ripening was first demon- 
strated by Dr. Storch, of Copenhagen, about twenty- 
five years ago. Since then the use of these cultures has 
spread so rapidly that few successful creameries can be 
found at the present time in which they are not used. 

Definition. Starter is the general term applied to 
cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been 
selected artificially in a laboratory, or at creameries by 
picking out lots of milk that seem to contain these organ- 
isms to the exclusion of others. A good starter may be 
defined as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour 
skim-milk. 

The word starter derives its name from the fact that 
a starter is used to ''start" or assist the development of 
the lactic fermentation in cream ripening. 

Object of Starters. Cream ordinarily contains many 
kinds of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — and to 
insure the predominance of the lactic acid type in the 
ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria 
of this type already existing in the cream by adding large 
quantities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with 
undesirable species. 

The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com- 
pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find 
plants of a desirable and undesirable character. The 

135 



|36 MARKET DAIRYING 

weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations 
of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated 
vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or 
suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of 
cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other 
fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The 
use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures 
a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority 
the better the product. 

Classification of Starters. Starters are divided into 
two general classes, namely, natural starters and com- 
mercial starters. The former consist of naturally soured 
milk or skim-milk and are generally less satisfactory 
than starters prepared from commercial cultures. There 
are comparatively few natural starters used at the pres- 
ent time. Commercial starters are sent out in hermetic- 
ally sealed bottles and, in the majority of cases, may be 
obtained in either liquid or powder form. The bacteria 
will keep longest in the powder preparation, but will be 
found most active in the liquid provided the same is used 
immediately. 

NATURAL STARTERS. 

Sour Milk and Skim=milk. Natural starters are those 
obtained by allowing milk, skim-milk, or possibly cream, 
to sour in the ordinary way. 

The earlier methods of using natural starters consisted 
in selecting milk or skim-milk from the patrons who 
furnished the best milk at the creamery, and allowing this 
to sour by holding it over till the following day. While 
good milk could be selected in this way, the method of 
souring it was very unsatisfactory. On warm days the 
milk might oversour, while on cooler days it would be 



STARTERS 137 

found comparatively sweet unless a good deal of atten- 
tion was given to keeping the temperature where it would 
sour in the proper length of time. This method of 
starter making is rapidly falling into disuse. 

The most satisfactory natural starters are selected and 
prepared in the following manner : Secure, say, one quart 
of milk from each of half a dozen healthy cows not far 
advanced in lactation, and fed on good feed. Before 
drawing the milk, brush the flanks and udders of the 
cows and then moisten them with water or, preferably, 
coat thinly with vasaline to prevent dislodgement of dust. 
Then, after rejecting the first few streams, draw the milk 
into sterilized quart jars provided with narrow necks. 
Now allow the milk to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure 
atmosphere at a temperature between 65 ° and 90 F. 
When loppered pour off the top and introduce the sample 
with the best flavor into fifty pounds of sterilized skim- 
milk and ripen at a temperature at which it will sour in 
twenty-four hours (about 65 ° F.). 

A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month 
or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur- 
ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother starter. 
Usually three or four pounds of the mother starter added 
to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim-milk will sour 
it in twenty-four hours at a temperature of 65 ° F. Under 
certain conditions of weather this amount may possibly 
have to be modified a little, for it is well known that on 
hot sultry days milk will sour more quickly at a given 
temperature than on cooler days. The* best rule to follow 
is to use enough of the mother starter to sour the milk 
in twenty-four hours at a temperature of 65 ° F. 

Buttermilk and Sour Cream. If the cream has a 
good flavor, a portion of this, or the buttermilk from it, 



138 MARKET DAIRYING 

may be used as a starter. But in the case of unpasteurized 
cream, even though the flavor is good, there are always 
present some undesirable germs which will multiply in 
each successive batch of cream or buttermilk used as a 
starter, so that after a week's use the flavor may actually 
be bad. Where cream is slightly off flavored and a por- 
tion of this, or the buttermilk from it, is used as a starter, 
it will readily be seen that the taint will not only be 
transmitted but will multiply in the cream from day to 
day. The use of either cream or buttermilk as a starter 
is therefore not to be recommended. 



COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 

Commercial starters may consist of a single species 
of lactic acid organisms, but usually they are made up 
of a mixture of several species. These starters are pre- 
pared in laboratories where the utmost precautions are 
taken to keep them free from undesirable germs. 

Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are 
sent out in one ounce bottles which are hermetically 
sealed. The method of making starters from them is the 
same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid or 
in the dry form. 

In making the first batch of commercial starter, the 
entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim- 
milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200 F. 
for two hours, and then cooling to 8o° which temperature 
should be maintained until the starter has thickened. A 
new starter is now prepared by introducing the quart of 
starter into fifty pounds of skim-milk, pasteurized by 
keeping it at a temperature of 170 to 185 ° for thirty 
minutes and then cooling to 65 ° F. All subsequent starters 
are prepared in the same way except that the amount of 



STARTERS 139 

mother starter for inoculation must be reduced a little 
for a few days because the germs become more vigorous 
after they have propagated several days. 

In preparing the first starter from a bottle of culture 
it is necessary to have the skim-milk sterile. For if any 
spores should remain, the slow souring would give them 
a chance to develop which might spoil the starter. More- 
over, the cooked flavor imparted by the prolonged heating 
at high temperatures does not matter in the first starter 
as this should never be used to ripen cream. The first 
and second starters prepared from a new culture seldom 
have the good flavor produced in subsequent starters. 
The cause of this in all probability is the inactive condi- 
tion of the germs and the peculiar flavor of the medium 
in which they are sent out. 

In the starters prepared later the destruction of the 
spores is not so essential as the lactic acid germs are then 
in a vigorously growing condition which renders the 
spores practically harmless. At any rate the harm done by 
them would be less than that caused by the sterilizing 
process. When milk is pasteurized at 170 to 185 F. 
for thirty minutes the vegetative germs are destroyed and 
but little cooked flavor is noticeable. 

NATURAL VERSUS COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 

Experimental tests have shown that equally good results 
can be secured with commerical and natural starters. It 
is believed, however, that the average butter maker can 
get the best results with commercial starters. Too few 
are good judges of milk and for this reason are not 
always capable of selecting the best for natural starters. 
Standard commercial cultures can be relied upon as giv- 
ing uniformly good results. 



140 MARKET DAIRYING 

From what has been said of the methods of preparing 
starters it must have been noticed that they are essentially 
the same for both the natural and the commercial, "the 
chief difference being in the original ferment, which in 
the case of the natural starter consists of a quart of 
selected milk allowed to sour naturally, while in the com- 
mercial it consists of a bottle of culture prepared in a 
laboratory. 

USING A STARTER EVERY OTHER DAY. 

During the winter when milk is received every other 
<iay at creameries the ordinary method of preparing 
atarters daily is, of course, out of question. There are 
two ways, however, in which starters may be carried 
along during this time. One way is to keep the starter 
an extra twenty-four hours by holding it at a temperature 
below 50 after it has soured. The other and more 
satisfactory way is to prepare a small starter on the day 
the milk is separated ; and, in addition, to pasteurize, but 
not inoculate, the amount of skim-milk needed for the 
regular starter. This milk is repasteurized the following 
day and then inoculated from the small starter prepared 
the day previous. 

The object in repasteurizing the milk is to destroy the 
spores that have developed into the vegetative state. 

HOW TO SELECT MILK FOR STARTERS. 

It is poor practice to select starter milk promiscuously. 
The sweetest and best flavored milk should be obtained 
for the preparation of starters. Where possible the best 
plan is to select the morning's milk of one of the earliest 
patrons at the creamery and separate this first. In case 



STARTERS 141 

the best milk is received toward the middle or close of the 
run, it should be carried into the creamery and separated 
by itself so as to secure the skim-milk without contamina- 
tion from other milk of inferior flavor. 

It must not be supposed that any milk may be made into 
a first-class starter by thorough pasteurization and inocu- 
lation with good cultures of bacteria. The best starters 
are possible only with the best milk. 

WHOLE MILK STARTERS. 

Where whole milk is used for making starters the cream 
should always be skimmed off before using the starter. 
Indeed it is good practice to skim off the top of any 
starter before using as the surface is liable to become 
contaminated from exposure to the air. 

ACIDITY OF STARTERS. 

It has already been stated that a starter is at its best 
immediately after it has thickened when it usually shows 
about .7% acid. It must not be supposed, however, that 
all starters are at their best when they show this amount 
of acid, because different starters thicken with different 
degrees of acidity. Nor must it be supposed that a starter 
that tends to sour very quickly is better than one that 
sours slowly. Marshall, of the Michigan Agricultural 
College, has recently found that when certain alkali pro- 
ducing bacteria are associated with the lactic acid organ- 
isms the milk sours more quickly than when the alkali 
bacteria are not present. These alkali producing bacteria, 
while they hasten the souring, produce an undesirable 
flavor. This probably explains why starters that have a 
tendency to sour very rapidly are often inferior to those 



142 MARKET DAIRYING 

that sour less rapidly. Usually, too, starters after they 
have been propagated for some time, become intensely 
acid producing, which is probably due to contamination 
with the peculiar alkali producing bacteria. 

RENEWAL 01? STARTERS. 

Under average creamery conditions it is policy to renew 
the starter at least once a month by purchasing a new 
bottle of culture. It will be found that after the starter 
has been propagated for two or three weeks bad germs 
will begin to manifest themselves as a result of imperfect 
pasteurization, contamination from the air, or from over- 
ripening, so that its original good flavor may be seriously 
impaired at the end of one month's use. It is only where 
the utmost precautions are taken in pasteurizing the milk 
and ripening the starter, that it is possible to propagate 
a starter for many weeks and still maintain a good flavor. 

VALUE OF CARRYING SEVERAL STARTERS. 

There is always some possibility of losing a starter by 
overripening or by accidental contamination which would 
deprive the butter maker of the use of a starter for several 
days. To insure against this, butter makers should practice 
carrying a few extra ones in quart cans. This has the. 
additional advantage of offering some choice. The best 
is, of course, always selected for regular use. The milk 
for the small starters should be sterilized rather than 
pasteurized. 

This practice of carrying several starters is strongly 
recommended. 



STARTERS 143 

STARTER CANS'. 

The most difficult thing in connection with starters is 
to get them just ripe when ready to use. A starter has 
its best flavor right after it has thickened. When it 
begins to show whey it indicates that the ripening has 
gone too far and should not then be used in the cream. 
The strong and curdy flavors found in butter are often 
directly attributable to overripened starters. 

It is evident that to secure the proper acidity in the 
starter from day to day, cans or vats must be used in 
which it is possible to obtain perfect control of tempera- 
ture. The improved modern starter cans answer the 
requirements. They are provided with a double jacket 
between which steam, hot water, cold water, or ice water 
may be circulated. They are also provided with power 
agitators. « 

MOTHER STARTERS. 

About two per cent of the bacteria in milk are present 
in the form of spores in which condition they cannot 
be destroyed -by the ordinary pasteurizing process. To 
destroy the spores, or to render milk sterile, requires pas- 
teurization on three successive days. It is for this rea- 
son that mother starters should be carried independently 
of the regular starter, the milk for which it is imprac- 
ticable to sterilize. 

A good method of handling the mother starter is as 
follows : 

Have a tinner make four narrow cylindrical tin cans, 
each large enough to hold the mother starter for one day. 
Number the cans I, 2, 3, 4. The first day pasteurize can 
No. 1 ; the second day pasteurize cans Nos. 1 and 2 ; the 



144 MARKET DAIRYING 

third day pasteurize cans Nos. i, 2 and 3. Can No. I 
has now been pasteurized three times which makes it 
sterile. Inoculate this can with a bottle of pure culture 
of lactic acid bacteria. The next day pasteurize cans Nos. 
2, 3 and 4 and inoculate can No. 2 from can No. 1, the 
former having now been pasteurized on three successive 
days. The next day pasteurize cans Nos. 1, 3 and 4 
and inoculate can No. 3 from can No. 2. And so the 
process is continued day after day. The mother starters 
thus prepared are used to inoculate the regular starter 
milk for cream ripening. 

The pasteurization of the small cans is easily accom- 
plished in a whisky barrel sawed in two. The cans are 
put into the half barrel and the latter is then covered 
with a piece of oilcloth or other material and a small 
stream of steam turned into the barrel. The cans being 
narrow, only a small amount of steam is required to heat 
the milk close to 200 F. Half an hour of heating will 
usually be found sufficient. The milk should be kept at 
170 F. or above for at least 15 minutes. The cans are 
cooled in the same barrel with cold water, the overflow 
of the barrel being placed at least two inches below the 
top of the cans. 

POINTERS ON STARTERS. 

1. Starters give best results when added to cream 
immediately after they have thickened. 

2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same 
effect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are 
usually the result of such starters. 

3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter 
vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept 
under perfect control. 



STARTERS 145 

4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 
since this has undergone the cleansing action of the sepa- 
rator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth of 
lactic acid bacteria. 

5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to in- 
sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable 
odors to escape. 

6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before 
inserting it in pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing process 
becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are used 
for observing temperatures. 

7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new 
starter. 

8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the milk 
has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting 
into it. 

9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours 
after inoculation to insure uniform ripening. 

10. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick- 
ening until ready to use. 

11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used, 
the first two starters from it should not be used in cream 
as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow 
growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted 
by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A 
commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been 
propagated a week. 

12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture 
before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk. 

Starter a Vast Army Fighting Against Evil Doers, 
The lactic acid germs are antagonistic to the other species 
of bacteria and the two classes may well be likened to 
two armies on the field of battle. In cream there are 



146 



MARKET DAIRYING 



frequently as many of the taint producing organisms 
present as of the lactic acid kind. But by adding a 
reasonable amount of starter to such cream, the lactic 
acid bacteria will so far outnumber the others that a good 
flavor may be expected. 

In order to better understand how the addition of a 
good starter will increase the fighting force of lactic acid 
bacteria in cream, we have represented in the accom- 
panying illustration the relative number of good and bad 
bacteria present in a given sample of cream just before 
and just after the addition of starter; 



• ° • o 

n ° • ° 

o o o 



O O o OaO O 0.000 




oRoo;£gA9n*o c 




Fig. A. Cream just before adding 
starter. 



Fig, B. Same cream just after 
adding 10% of starter. 



Fig. A represents a sample of cream rather below the 
average in quality, assumed to contain 6,000,000 bacteria 
per c.c. Two-thirds of these in this instance belong to 
the lactic acid group, which is represented by the circles. 
The other third of the bacteria belong to the taint pro- 
ducing group, which is represented by dots. 

What an insignificant chance taint-producing bacteria 
have to taint cream that has been treated with a good 
starter compared with their opportunity for mischief in 
the same cream, untreated! 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CULTURED MILK. 

Definition. The term cultured milk is applied to 
milk which has been soured by the use of special cul- 
tures of lactic acid bacteria among which, as a rule, 
is included the Bacillus Bulgaricus. Usually such milk 
is partially skimmed and then pasteurized before it 
is inoculated with the special cultures. When thor- 
oughly coagulated, the milk is agitated in a churn or 
other apparatus specially designed for this purpose, until 
it assumes a smooth, homogeneous consistency. 

Milk of this class is sold to the trade under various 
names, such as Bulgara, Pokoloc, Bacillac, Fermillac, 
Vitalac, Yoghurt, Zoulac, etc. 

Therapeutic Value. It was Dr. Metchnikoff of the 
Pasteur Institute who first proclaimed the full virtues 
of this class of milk, especially that soured with the 
Bacillus Bulgaricus, which is the name applied to a 
species of lactic acid bacteria indigenous to Bulgaria, 
where Metchnikoff found people to live to an unusually 
old age. Investigation proved to him that the regular 
indulgence in a drink, Yogart, containing this bacillus, 
was largely responsible for the good health and longevity 
of Bulgarians. Metchnikoff demonstrated that the Bul- 
garian and other lactic acid bacteria are antagonistic to 
putrefactive and allied organisms and that, by virtue 
of this, when taken into the system, will check putre- 
faction in the intestines and thus prevent the formation 

147 



148 MARKET DAIRYING 

of toxic substances, which give rise to a retinue of in- 
testinal and bodily disorders. 

From what has been said it is evident that the thera- 
peutic value of cultured milk rests upon a sound, scien- 
tific basis. Foods, after going through the usual course 
of digestion, are temporarily stored in the colon or 
large intestine where putrefaction and other undesir- 
able forms of fermentation always take place before the 
undigested material is finally eliminated from the body. 
Such fermentations are always undesirable and, when 
carried to excess, cause auto-intoxication or ptomaine 
poisoning. In mild cases such poisoning may produce 
only headaches and general discomfort or indisposition, 
but in aggravated cases severe sickness, and even death, 
may be the consequence. 

While all of the ordinary species of lactic acid bac- 
teria are capable of counteracting undesirable fermen- 
tation processes in the intestines, the Bacillus Bulgaricus 
has special value in this connection because of its vigor- 
ous acid-producing qualities and great resistance to 
stomach and intestinal secretions which enable it to 
reach the colon or larger intestine in an active condition. 

The antiseptic value of cultured milk is believed by 
Metchnikoff to be the means of prolonging life to a 
very appreciable extent. He claims that old age is 
hastened by the weakening and destruction of the brain, 
nerves, bone, muscle and other cells of the body, caused 
by the absorption of products formed by the undesir- 
able ferments of the intestines. In checking or destroy- 
ing these undesirable ferments by the anticeptic action 
of cultured milk, the weakening or destructive effects 
of their products on the body cells, is materially re- 
duced or eliminated. 



CULTURED MILK 149 

Value as a Drink and Food. Well made cultured 
milk is a palatable product highly relished by most peo- 
ple. It is superior to ordinary sour milk or buttermilk, 
both in palatability and wholesomeness as well as in 
food value. Its palatability and food value increase with 
the richness of the milk. 

Cultured milk made from whole milk is fully as 
nutritious as ordinary milk and many food experts pre- 
fer it to whole milk as a food because of the presence 
of the acid, which aids in its digestion. But if we 
credit it only with the same food value as ordinary 
milk, it will still be found a cheap food as the following 
extract from Farmers' Bulletin 413, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, will show : 

"A quart of milk supplies practically as much of 
both protein and energy as three-quarters of a pound of 
beef of average composition or eight average eggs, and 
can generally be bought for less money. In case milk 
is 8c a quart, beef 20c a pound and eggs 24c a dozen, 
ioc spent for milk will buy a little more protein and 
much more energy than ioc spent for beef or ioc spent 
for eggs. Thus, while animal foods other than milk 
(meat, eggs and cheese) are desirable to give variety 
to the diet it may be assumed that milk may be used as 
an economical substitute for any of them." 

From this it will be seen that cultured milk, which, 
as has been stated, is fully equal in food value to ordi- 
nary milk, will prove economical if used only as a food. 
Its medicinal value, therefore, instead of being obtained 
at some expense, as many believe, actually costs nothing 
when cultured milk can be obtained at, say, ten cents 
per quart. 

Method of Manufacture. In making cultured milk 



150 MARKET DAIRYING 

the idea is to get a drink which shall contain practically 
none other than the common lactic acid and the Bul- 
garian bacilli. This requires that the milk be thoroughly 
pasteurized and then inoculated with pure cultures of 
the common lactic acid and Bulgarian bacteria. 

Bacillus Bulgaricus. So far as known, none of 
those who are making a specialty of supplying cultured 
milk have found the Bacillus Bulgaricus entirely satis- 
factory when used by itself. The high acid production 
and the comparatively high temperature at which it must 
be grown, combined with the tendency to produce a 
slimy curd, make milk fermented with this bacillus less 
palatable than that soured with ordinary lactic acid bac- 
teria. The flavor produced by this bacillus is also less 
desirable than that produced by the ordinary lactic acid 
bacteria. 

On the other hand, while there are objections to the 
exclusive use of the Bulgarian bacteria, they have a 
use in cultured milk aside from the medicinal value al- 
ready discussed. The slimy curd produced by them 
gives smoothness to body when mixed with the com- 
mon lactic acid cultures and checks or prevents the 
separation of the whey in the finished product. 

Unlike the common lactic acid bacteria, the Bulgarian 
bacteria are extremely sensitive to temperature, develop- 
ing best at about ioo° F. At this temperature the 
amount of acid produced may reach three per cent. 
Below 90 F. there is little development and for this 
reason the culture soon deteriorates when attempts are 
made to propogate it at the same temperature at which 
the ordinary lactic acid cultures are prepared. This 
fact has caused many cultured milk manufacturers to 
propogate the Bulgarian and common lactic acid cul- 



CULTURED MILK !51 

tures separately, holding the former close to ioo° F. and 
the latter at about yo° F. 

Preparation and Propogation. The Bacillus Bul- 
garicus culture is prepared and propogated in essentially 
the same manner as the common lactic acid cultures 
(starters) discussed in the preceding chapter, except 
that it must be given a higher temperature for develop- 
ment — 95 to ioo° F. Because of this difference in 
temperature requirement, the mother cultures of the Bul- 
garian and common lactic acid cultures should always 
be propogated separately. The high growing tempera- 
ture also makes it necessary to pasteurize the milk more 
thoroughly. A pasteurizing temperature of about 190 
F. should be maintained for at least thirty minutes. 

Under ideal conditions, two batches of milk should be 
pasteurized, one to be inoculated with the Bulgarian 
mother culture and the other with the common lactic 
acid culture. When thoroughly curdled, the two batches 
are mixed and churned together. The customary prac- 
tice is to pasteurize one batch of milk and to inoculate 
this with the. desired amount of both cultures. Usually 
considerably more of the common lactic acid culture is 
used than of the Bulgarian. Where the same batch of 
pasteurized milk is inoculated with both cultures, the 
milk, as a rule, is inoculated at from 90 to ioo° F. and 
the temperature gradually allowed to drop so that it 
will have reached about 70 F. at the time of coagula- 
tion. The high initial temperature gives the Bulgarian 
bacteria an opportunity for development. 

As soon as the milk is thoroughly coagulated, the 
curd is broken up by churning or by other means of agita- 
tion. Special cans or vats are now obtainable which 
make it possible to pasteurize, sour, churn and cool the 



152 MARKET DAIRYING 

milk in the same machine. The coagulated milk is 
churned until it has become perfectly smooth and uni- 
form. Prolonged or too vigorous agitation will induce 
severe foaming, which is undesirable. Where much foam 
gathers, it must be allowed to settle and then skimmed 
of! before bottling, otherwise a skin or crust will form 
on top of the bottle. The more the milk is churned 
or agitated the thinner it will become in consistency. 
Too heavy a consistency is undesirable. 

After churning, the milk should be thoroughly cooled, 
strained and then bottled. 

Marketing. Cultured milk is usually sold in half 
pint and pint bottles, at from five to ten cents per pint. 
One cent a pint above the market price for whole milk 
should give the producer a reasonable profit from cul- 
tured milk, even if made from whole milk. As a rule 
it is made from partially skimmed milk, containing as 
low as one per cent fat, in which case, of course, it 
can be produced for considerably less. 

This class of milk should first of all be sold to con- 
sumers direct the same as ordinary milk, and large 
quantities can be disposed of in this way. Other out- 
lets should be sought, however, such as drug stores, 
hotels and restaurants. Owing to the well advertised 
merits of cultured milk, there is call for it at practically 
all soda fountains; in fact some do an exceptionally 
large business in this class of milk, not only during the 
summer but throughout the year. Soda fountains re- 
tail cultured milk, as a rule, at five cents per half pint 
bottle. 

While the wholesomeness of cultured milk is well 
recognized by physicians, dieticians and the better 
educated classes in general, the majority of milk con- 



CULTURED MILK 153 

sumers do not know much of its value, and, therefore, a 
certain amount of advertising will be found profitable. 
This can be done through the press, through posters and 
by furnishing dealers with attractive display signs. 
Those who handle this product for the first time on 
their milk routes, should furnish their customers with 
printed leaflets discussing the merits of the product. 

Necessary Precautions. To keep the cultured milk 
as free from foreign organisms as possible, thorough 
pasteurization of the milk is essential. It will also be 
necessary to buy new cultures about every two weeks. 
Indeed the same precautions should be taken here as 
in the case of starters discussed in the preceding chap- 
ter. Every bottle of the cultured milk must bear a 
label giving the trade name of the milk, such as "Cul- 
tured Milk," "Fermillac," etc. The milk must be con- 
stantly kept at low temperatures from the time it is 
made until it reaches the consumer ; the nearer the 
freezing temperature the better, but it must never be 
frozen. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

SKI M M II^K-BUTTKRM II.K. 

Souring the Skim=milk. As soon as the skim-milk 
leaves the separator, whole milk is added at the rate of 
one gallon to twenty gallons of skim-milk. This gives the 
mixture a fat content, which approximates that of ordinary 
buttermilk. A large quantity of pure culture of lactic 
acid bacteria (starter, see p. 135) is next added and the 
temperature brought to 70 ° F. Enough starter is added to 
curdle the skim-milk in about six hours at the temperature 
mentioned. This requires about one pound of culture for 
every three pounds of skim-milk. When a temperature 
above 70 F. is employed, there is a tendency for whey 
to separate after the skim-milk has curdled. 

Churning. When thoroughly curdled, the skim-milk 
is placed in a churn and churned for about twenty minutes 
in the same way that cream is churned in making butter. 
The churning process thoroughly breaks up the curd clots, 
resulting in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be dis- 
tinguished from ordinary good buttermilk. 

Cooling, Immediately after the buttermilk leaves the 
churn, the temperature should be reduced below 50 F. 
to prevent further development of acid and the separa- 
tion of the whey. Ordinary milk and cream coolers with 
enlarged holes in the distributing receptacle will answer 
very satisfactorily. 

Straining. As soon as cooled, the buttermilk should 
154 



SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK 155 

be run through a strainer consisting of one thickness of 
cheese cloth to remove any unbroken curd clots. 

Bottling. After it is strained the buttermilk is bottled 
or put in tin cans holding from one to five gallons, after 
which it is placed in the refrigerator where it is held until 
ready for delivery. 

Marketing Skim=milk Buttermilk. In trying to sell 
skimmilk-buttermilk it is necessary in the first place, to ex- 
plain that this product, when made as herein described, is 
almost identical with the highest grade of natural butter- 
milk, both in composition and physical properties, and, 
therefore, in palatability and wholesomeness. Indeed, it 
is not thought possible under average conditions to secure 
natural buttermilk of as uniform a quality or as fine a 
flavor as can be obtained from skim-milk. When these 
facts are explained to dealers and consumers, any preju- 
dices which might exist against this so-called artificial 
product are certain to vanish. 

The dealers in buttermilk should be furnished with 
attractive signs, calling attention to the fact that the 
product is for sale by them. Buttermilk is not found at 
all soda fountains, and unless conspicuous signs are 
posted at these places, the public may not call for it. 

Buttermilk may readily be sold to drug stores, restau- 
rants, hotels and boarding houses at from ten to thirty 
cents per gallon, averaging about twelve cents per gallon. 

As with cottage cheese, the most satisfactory way of 
disposing of buttermilk is to sell it direct to the milk 
and cream customers along the dairy route. 

Where buttermilk is intended to be used as a beverage, 
it is important to keep its temperature below 50 F. until 
it is consumed. 

Food Value of Buttermilk. When used as a bever- 



156 



MARKET DAIRYING 



age, buttermilk is usually appreciated only for its palata- 
bility. Aside from this, however, it has a high dietetic, 
as well as high medicinal, value. In certain diseases, 
especially those affecting the alimentary tract, buttermilk 
is considered indispensable. Its nutritive value is high, 
two quarts being approximately equal to one pound of 
good beefsteak. 

Buttermilk From Pasteurized Skim=milk. The best 
buttermilk is obtained by adding the starter to pasteurized 
skim-milk. Under such conditions the entire skim-milk 
becomes virtually a starter or pure culture of lactic acid 
bacteria. This not only means a better flavor but also 
insures freedom from pathogenic organisms. Pasteuriza- 
tion also lessens the tendency for the whey to separate. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



ICE CREAM MAKING. 



Scores of creameries throughout the country are now 
making ice cream in connection with butter with very 
satisfactory results. At prevailing prices, cream con- 
verted into ice cream will yield approximately double the 
profit obtained by making it into butter. 

Creameries have several important advantages in the 
manufacture of ice cream not possessed by exclusive ice 
cream manufacturers. In the first place the creamery 
can obtain its cream at a lower cost than the ice cream 
factory; and, secondly, most creameries are in a better 
position to meet the varying demands for ice cream be- 
cause of the abundance of cream they always have on 
hand. This makes it possible for them to double their 
output on short notice, as well as enables them to pull 
through a sudden slump in the demand without loss be- 
cause any surplus cream can be manufactured into butter. 

Kind of Cream. Select the best flavored sweet cream 
containing about 20% butter fat. To secure the best 
bodied ice cream and the proper swell, cream should be 
kept as near the freezing point as possible for twenty- 
four hours previous to freezing. 

Where sweet, clean flavored cream is not obtainable, 
pasteurization is very essential. Pasteurized cream has 
better keeping quality and will also produce a better 
bodied ice cream when properly handled. 

Pasteurize the cream at a temperature of from 140 

157 



158 



MARKET DAIRYING 



to 150 F., and hold at this temperature for 15 minutes. 
Then quickly cool and keep the cream as near freezing 
temperature as possible for at least 24 hours before 
freezing. Holding the pasteurized cream cold this length 
of time restores to a great extent the viscosity which it 
has lost in the pasteurizing process. 

Cream can also be satisfactorily pasteurized in con- 
tinuous pasteurizers, but greater care is necessary because 
of the higher temperature that must be employed. But 
even with the higher temperature the pasteurizing is 
bound to be less thorough than where the cream is held 
some time at a lower temperature. 

Freezing Process. With an initial temperature of 
about 35 F., the time required to freeze ice cream should 
average about twelve minutes, and to get the best con- 
sistency the temperature at the close of the freezing 
process should be approximately 28 F. 

Too quick freezing causes the water to separate from 
the cream, which results in a granular ice cream. Freez- 
ing too slowly reduces the overrun and tends to make the 
ice cream smeary. 

To reduce the temperature of a mass of cream below 
the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture of a low 
temperature. Such a mixture is secured by mixing salt 
and crushed ice in the proportion of one of salt to about 
twelve of ice. The purpose of the salt is to lower the 
freezing point of the melting ice and to hasten the melt- 
ing. 

To melt one pound of ice at 32 F. into water at the 
same temperature requires 142 heat units. Rapidly melt- 
ing ice, therefore, absorbs a large quantity of heat which 
in the freezing of cream is largely extracted from the 
cream. 



ICE CREAM MAKING 159 

The temperature of the ice cream mixture when start- 
ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible to 
prevent churning the cream. The tendency to churn is 
also lessened by revolving the freezer slowly the first few 
minutes in freezing. 

In packing the freezing mixture around the cream 
container, fill the freezer about half full of finely crushed 
ice and finish the filling by using salt and ice in the 
proportion of about one to six. As the ice mixture works 
down during the freezing process, continue adding mor; 
salt and ice as needed. 

If the freezer is started while the cream is still war: 
(about 6o° F.), the speed of the freezer must be kc 
down to about fifty revolutions until a temperature < 
about 35°, F. is reached. After this the speed is increase 
to 150 t0( ; 200 revolutions per minute until the cream : 
frozen. This speed insures the proper incorporation c 
air and the desirable smoothness of the finished product. 

The freezer should be stopped before the cream be- 
comes too thick, else it will lose some of the air that has 
been incorporated as well as show a tendency to coarse- 
ness in texture. Yield and quality therefore demand that 
the freezer be stopped while the cream is still a trifle 
soft. 

Vanilla Flavor. Of all ice cream flavors vanilla is the 
most popular. The majority of ice cream manufacturers 
use vanilla extract, but great care should be used in its 
selection as there are many different grades upon the 
market. 

The best flavors are obtained from the Mexican vanilla 
beans, which are dark in color, measure 9 to 93/2 inches 
in length, weigh about 1-6 of an ounce, and are oily and 



160 



MARKET DAIRYING 



pliable, so that they can be wound around the ringers. 
They must be very fragrant and closed, leaving none of 
the seeds exposed, which are the seat of much of the 
vanilla flavor. The lower grades of Mexican and other 
varieties of vanilla beans can easily be recognized by their 
length, as shown in the accompanying illustration. 




Mexican, Bourbon and Tahiti Vanilla Beans. 

The finest vanilla flavor is secured by purchasing the 
best quality of Mexican vanilla beans and preparing them 
as follows: 

Cut the beans in small pieces and grind them as fine 



ICE CREAM MAKING 161 

as possible with loaf sugar. Immediately after grind- 
ing, the vanilla sugar is bottled and corked and set aside 
until ready for use. On an average one bean is required 
per gallon of ice cream. 

Add the vanilla sugar (sugar containing the ground 
beans) required for a given batch of ice cream to one or 
more gallons of the cream and keep the latter at a tem- 
perature of about 150 F. for five or ten minutes and 
then strain through three thicknesses of cheese cloth while 
still hot. While extracting the flavor with the hot cream 
the cream container should be kept covered as much as 
possible. The high temperature aids in extracting the 
flavor as well as aids in straining out the remnants of the 
beans. The seeds are very fine and require a very fine 
strainer to remove them. 

Some grind up the beans and extract the flavor by 
means of alcohol, an ounce of the cut up beans being 
soaked in about ten ounces of a mixture consisting of 
equal parts of grain alcohol and water. The flavor of 
the alcohol and other spirituous substances used in the 
extraction of vanilla flavor, are objectionable and can be 
recognized in the ice cream. 

The vanilla beans when prepared with sugar as sug- 
gested, not only produce a better flavor than is possible 
with extracts, but also cost less. 

Vanilla Ice Cream. To make ten gallons of finished 
ice cream, requires about six gallons of cream to which 
should be added about nine pounds of sugar, or one 
and one-half pounds to the gallon. The sugar should be 
well mixed with the cream and allowed to dissolve before 
starting the freezer. Next add four ounces of vanilla ex- 



162 MARKET DAIRYING 

tract or six best quality Mexican vanilla beans prepared 
as directed under "Vanilla Flavor," and freeze. 

Chocolate Ice Cream. This can be made by adding 
chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream. The choco- 
late flavor for ten gallons of finished ice cream is pre- 
pared as follows : Dissolve one and one-half pounds of 
bitter chocolate by placing it in a double boiler and add- 
ing a little water ; then heat slowly working the chocolate 
to a smooth paste; add more water and work until the 
mass is smooth;* add one pound of sugar, heat and 
work smooth; add more water, heat the mixture nearly 
to the boiling point and add one pound of sugar ; stir 
and bring to a boil, care being taken not to scorch it. 
Nearly three pints of water are required to dissolve the 
chocolate. 

In making a regular batch of chocolate ice cream, the 
chocolate is added before starting to freeze. 

Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice 
cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from any 
signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold water 
and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind, 
being careful not to grate off any of the white por- 
tion which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with 
sugar, using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. 
Next cut the lemons in two and squeeze out the juice, 
removing any seeds that may have dropped in from the 
squeezer. Mix the juice with the sugared rind and add 
orange juice to the mixture, using one orange to every 
three or four lemons. Allow the mixture to stand for. 
about one hour, stirring it occasionally, and then strain. 
Use at the rate of one-half pint per gallon of cream. 

*Bulletin No. 155, Vermont Experiment Station. 



ICE CREAM MAKING I53 

The flavor is added to the cream when nearly frozen to 
prevent curdling it. Use two pounds of sugar per gal- 
lon of cream. 

Walnut Ice Cream. Use six gallons of cream, nine 
pounds of sugar, four ounces vanilla extract (or bean 
equivalent) and four pounds of ground walnut meats. 
Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream. 

Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut, 
pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be prepared 
essentially as walnut ice cream. 

Strawberry Ice Cream. Use six gallons of cream, 
nine pounds of sugar and one-half gallon of crushed 
strawberries. The fruit should be added to the cream 
after it is partially frozen so as not to curdle the cream 
or to have the fruit settle to the bottom. 

Other Fruit Ice Creams. Cherry, raspberry, pine- 
apple, peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry ice 
creams are made the same as strawberry, except that the 
amount of sugar is varied according to the acidity of 
the fruit. 

Packing Ice Cream. Remove the ice cream from the 
freezer while still in rather soft condition and put the 
same in packing cans which have been thoroughly chilled 
by having the ice and salt packed around them about ten 
minutes before receiving the ice cream. Most of the 
salt should be put near the top, the same as in freezing. 
The ice cream should be held in the packing cans at a 
temperature below 20 F. 

Remove the brine and repack often enough to prevent 
melting. In the melting process the water separates and 
forms undesirable crystals when the cream is refrozen. 



1 6 4 MARKET DAIRYING 

Always repack with a new freezing mixture just before 
the ice cream leaves the creamery. 

The Use of Gelatin or Binders. Many look upon 
gelatin as an adulterant in ice cream and in some states 
its use is prohibited by law. It is true that the highest 
quality of ice cream is produced without the use of gela- 
tin, still, under commercial conditions, the use of a limited 
amount of good gelatin has been commended for several 
reasons : 

i. It prevents, to a great extent, the granulation or 
crystallization of the ice cream that usually occurs with 
advancement of age. Ice cream without any binder, such 
as gelatin, will become coarse and granular and the older 
the ice cream, the more aggravated this condition be- 
comes. This, however, is the very reason why the use 
of gelatin has been condemned by many in the past. 
Where no gelatin is used the extent of crystallization is 
an indication of the age of the ice cream, thus affording 
protection to consumers against old ice cream. 

2. Gelatin assists in maintaining the body of the ice 
cream under comparatively high temperature conditions. 
Ice cream without any binder will immediately become 
soft and mushy on exposure to a high temperature, a con- 
dition which materially lessens the palatability of the 
cream. The advantages thus afforded by the use of gela- 
tin have some disadvantages, so far as the consumer is 
concerned, in that the ice cream can be held under tem- 
perature conditions which favor the development of the 
various kinds of organisms usually present in ice cream. 

Where gelatin is used, place the gelatin in a double 
boiler, add two or three quarts of cream and heat, stir- 
ring until the gelatin is all dissolved. Next strain the 



ICE CREAM MAKING 165 

hot gelatin mixture into the regular batch of cream to 
be frozen and thoroughly mix. In melting the gelatin 
the heating should be stopped as soon as melted to pre- 
vent danger from curdling the gelatin. 

The Overrun or Swell. This refers to the excess of 
ice cream over cream. Anything that tends to incorporate 
and hold air in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus 
excessive beating of the cream during freezing mixes a 
great deal of air with it, and hence, increases the over- 
run. A high viscosity of the cream holds the air incor- 
porated during freezing. Fresh separator cream has a 
low viscosity, that is, does not whip well, hence will not 
swell up so much in freezing as cream that has been kept 
cold for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has 
a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping the 
cream at a low temperature a number of hours before 
freezing. 

An overrun of from 60 to 70 per cent is large enough. 
Overruns approximating 80 to 90 per cent are obtained 
at the expense of quality. 

Cost of Ice Cream. The cost of making ice cream 
will depend largely upon the richness and cost of the 
cream, the amount of overrun, and the kind and quantity 
of ice cream manufactured. An average ten-gallon batch 
of vanilla ice cream made in a creamery will cost ap- 
proximately as follows: 

6 gallons of 20 per cent cream §3-Z& 

9 pounds sugar SO 

4 ounces vanilla 30 

3 ounces gelatin .10 

Ice and salt 70 

Labor and power 1 . 00 

$5-96 
Total cost per gallon, 59.6 cents. 



166 MARKET DAIRYING 

The six gallons of cream would weigh approximately 
forty-eight pounds and contain 9.6 pounds of butter fat. 
Valuing butter fat at 35 cents per pound, the cost of the 
cream used will be $3.36, as stated above. 

Where 100 or more gallons of ice cream are made 
daily, and cream containing, say, 15 per cent butter fat 
is used, the cost of a gallon of ice cream will be about 45 
cents. 

The gelatin may be omitted. 

Marketing Ice Cream. The essential thing in build- 
ing up a good ice cream trade is to make the best product 
possible. The market is glutted with cheap, inferior ice 
cream, and the call now is for a high grade product. 
Fortunately the public is beginning to realize that there 
is positive danger in eating ice cream made from old, stale 
milk or cream, and the public also seems to begin to 
understand that the bulk of ice cream is made with 
so-called thickeners, like gelatin, corn starch, tapioca, 
arrow root, and others. Many so-called ice creams con- 
tain no cream whatever. The highest quality of ice cream 
contains nothing but good, pure cream, sugar and Havor- 
ing. 

Plants making ice cream are not limited to their 
own home town as a market for this product. With 
proper refrigeration, ice cream may easily be shipped 
several hundred miles. A great deal of the ice cream 
consumed in Charleston, S. C, is shipped from New 
York. New Orleans gets much of its ice cream from 
North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee. 

If you haven't sufficient market near home for your 
ice cream, don't hesitate to ship it several hundred miles. 
Study the available markets, small and large, and keep 
reaching out until you have market for all of your 
product. 



ICE CREAM MAKING 167 

Homogenizer. This machine is now used by most 
of the leading ice cream manufacturers. Its purpose 
is to break up the fat globules into smaller particles. 
This is accomplished by forcing the cream under high 
pressure through small openings. The effect of break- 
ing up the fat globules in this way is to give cream 
more body, making it seem considerably richer than it 
actually is. Not only does the homogenizing process 
give cream more body but it also gives the ice cream a 
smoother texture and an apparently richer flavor. It 
also increases the yield of ice cream. 

The cream is usually pumped directly from the pas- 
teurizer into the homogenizer at a temperature of about 
130 F. From the homogenizer the cream is sent 
directly onto the cooler, the pressure of the machine 
being such as to force the cream to any height desired. 

Aging Cream. It is well known that pasteurization 
lowers the viscocity of cream ; it is likewise well known 
that pasteurized cream will regain, to a large extent, 
its viscocity if held at low temperatures a sufficient 
length of time. Ice cream manufacturers whose am- 
bition is to secure maximum yields, have gone to ex- 
tremes in regard to aging cream after pasteurization. 
Some actually hold the pasteurized cream a week, or 
longer before freezing. There is no justification in 
holding cream this long. As a rule, cream will have 
gained a large percentage of its "recoverable" viscocity 
six hours after pasteurization if held close to the freez- 
ing temperature; and little, if anything, in the way 
of body can be obtained by holding pasteurized cream 
longer than 24 hours before freezing, provided of 
course, that the cream is kept near 32 F. 

What is said here about pasteurized cream applies 



16g MARKET DAIRYING 

also to fresh, unpasteurized cream, though to a less 
extent. Sweet, fresh cream after it leaves the separator 
has little body and such cream should be held at least 
four hours close to the freezing temperature before 
freezing. But here as in the case of pasteurized cream, 
the time of aging at low temperatures before freezing 
should be limited to twenty-four hours. 

While prolonged aging may slightly increase the body 
of the cream and, therefore, make possible a larger 
yield than can be obtained by aging cream six to twenty- 
four hours, the advantage thu*s gained is more than off- 
set by the extra cost and labor involved in the extra 
holding and by the depreciation in the flavor due to 
bacterial development. Cream always contains bacteria 
capable of developing at freezing temperatures and the 
longer the cream is kept the more the flavor will suffer. 
Indeed there is actual danger in prolonged holding of 
cream at low temperatures because of the possible de- 
velopment of toxic substances. Every year many per- 
sons are poisoned, by eating ice cream and such poison- 
ing is usually ascribed to prolonged holding of insani- 
tary cream at low temperatures. 

What is said here about holding cream before freez- 
ing applies with equal force to cream after freezing. 
Hardening after freezing is essential, but there is no 
reason why this process should be extended beyond 
twenty-four hours. Ice cream will be 'better twenty- 
four hours after freezing than when kept longer. 

The Use of Condensed Milk; A great many ice 
cream manufacturers use condensed milk in making ice 
cream. Some use as much as eight per. cent. Condensed 
milk gives body to ice cream. 



ICE CREAM MAKING 169 

LACTO. 

This is a frozen sour skim-milk product* which has 
proved very popular. The skim-milk for lacto is pre- 
pared in the same manner as for starter. Indeed a 
first class starter furnishes the best milk for this prod- 
uct. The following are a few of the formulas used 
for making lacto: 

Cherry Lacto: 3 gallons lacto milk, 9 pounds sugar, 
12 eggs, 1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry 
syrup, 1 3/2 pints lemon juice. 

Orange Lacto: 3 gallons lacto milk, 11 pounds sugar, 
12 eggs, 2J/2 quarts orange juice, 1J/2 pints lemon juice. 

Grape Lacto: 3 gallons lacto milk, 9 pounds sugar, 
12 eggs, 1 quart grape juice, I*/? pints lemon juice. 

In making up the mixture for the different formulas 
the following procedure is recommended : 

The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The 
eggs are then prepared. The whites and yolks are kept 
in separate containers and each lot is beaten with an egg 
beater. Both the yolks and whites are then added to 
the milk. The mixture is thoroughly stirred and strained 
through a fine wire gauze. The fruit juices are added 
last. If there is any indication of the juices precipitat- 
ing the casein, they should be left out until the mixture 
has begun to freeze, when they may be added. The 
freezer is now run until it turns with difficulty, when 
the paddle is removed. The brine is removed and the 
freezer repacked with ice and salt and left for an hour 
before the contents are served. 

Buttermilk has not proven very satisfactory for mak- 
ing a high quality lacto. 

♦Bulletin No. 118, Iowa Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XX. 



MODIFIED MILK. 



In the feeding of babies, the importance of changing 
the natural composition of cow's milk to approximate 
that of human milk is now so generally recognized by 
physicians, nurses and dieticians as to require no fur- 
ther comment. Milk so changed is known as modified 
or nursery milk, and what is needed now is to get milk 
dealers to recognize the importance of supplying this 
milk. All milk dealers have customers that are in need 
of modified milk and all should be in a position to 
provide it. While there are many who are supplying 
modified milk at the present time, it is safe to state 
that the great bulk of babies dependent upon cow's 
milk are fed this milk in an unmodified form. 

Human and Cow's Milk Compared. In order that 
milk dealers may appreciate more fully this subject, 
we shall try to point out some of the main differences 
between human milk and cow's milk. According to 
Koenig, the composition of cow's milk and human milk 
is as follows: 





Water 


Fat 


Protein 


Sugar 


Ash 


Cow 

Human 


88.17 
88.20 


3- 6 9 
3-3° 


3-55 
1.50 


4.88 
6.80 


0.71 
0.20 



The chief difference between the two milks, it will 
170 



MODIFIED MILK 171 

be noted, is in the protein content. Cow's milk con- 
tains more than twice the amount of protein found in 
human milk. But this is not all : the casein of cow's 
milk has an acid reaction while that of the human is 
alkaline. The acid condition of the milk casein causes 
it to clot when taken into the stomach which, in the 
case of the calf, does no harm because its stomach is 
adapted to handle such clots. With the baby the situa- 
tion is different ; with a small stomach and a small open- 
ing leading from it into the intestines, where the greater 
share of digestion takes place, a clot will cause the baby 
a great deal of discomfort. The alkalinity of human 
milk prevents to a great extent the formation of clots. 

Method of Modifying Milk. As pointed out, cow's 
milk contains fully twice as much protein as human 
milk, and it is this excessive protein that must be gotten 
rid of in adapting cow's milk for infant feeding. To 
show how this may be done, we will suppose that ap- 
proximately 225 pounds of modified milk is to be made. 
Take 150 pounds of whole milk and run it through 
a cream separator. Place the skim-milk in a vat, heat 
it to ioo° F. and add rennet extract at the rate of 3 
to 4 ounces per 1,000 pounds of milk. When curdled, 
cut the curd in cubes as in Cheddar cheese making and 
stir, gradually bringing the temperature up to 108 to 
no F. In the course of about 30 minutes the whey 
can be removed from the curd. The whey obtained in 
this way from the 150 of milk will amount to about 
120 pounds. This whey will contain about 0.9 pound 
of protein consisting chiefly of albumen. 

Next take 100 pounds of whole milk and add enough 
of the cream skimmed from the 150 pounds of milk to 
give it a fat content of 3.5% when mixed with the 



172 MARKET DAIRYING 

whey previously prepared. This will make the com- 
position approximately correct so far as fat and pro- 
tein are concerned. But the milk is deficient in sugar 
as human milk contains about 25% more sugar than 
cow's milk. The deficiency in milk sugar is made up 
by adding commercial milk sugar. Milk sugar is speci- 
fied because it is more digestible than cane sugar. 

It will be remembered that human milk has an alka- 
line reaction while cow's milk is decidedly acid. It is, 
therefore, advisable to add some lime water in modify- 
ing milk. Enough should be added to make the milk 
practically neutral. 

The best lime preparation for reducing the acidity of 
milk is "viscogen," the preparation of which is discussed 
on page 113. Sugar has a great solvent action on lime 
and hence its use makes possible a very concentrated 
lime solution. 

The milk to which the cream and sugar has been 
added, should not be mixed with the whey until the 
latter has been heated to 145 ° F. for ten minutes, or 
long enough to destroy the action of the rennet extract 
remaining in it. As soon as the rennet has been de- 
stroyed, the prepared milk is added to the whey and 
thoroughly mixed. Next the acidity is reduced by add- 
ing the viscogen prepared for this purpose. This done, 
the mixture is pasteurized at 145 F. for thirty minutes 
and then quickly cooled to a low temperature when it 
is ready for market. 

The foregoing suggestions regarding the modifying 
of milk for infants can easily be followed by anyone 
and milk so modified can be sold at a profit by charg- 
ing only slightly more for it than for ordinary market 
milk. 



MODIFIED MILK 



173 



One of the things that has restricted the use of modi- 
fied milk in the past is the high price at which it has 
been sold. There is no urgent need of putting the 
milk in small bottles provided with cotton plugs as is 
practiced in some of the large modified milk laboratories. 
What is needed above all is to get good pure milk and 
to reduce the casein content to at least one-half. Next 
in importance is the reduction of the acidity. Reducing 
the amount of casein not only eliminates an unneces- 
sary tax upon the digestive system in disposing of a 
surplus of a certain food element, but makes the casein 
more digestible in that it cannot clot so readily. If, 
in addition to eliminating half the casein, the milk is 
rendered alkaline or nearly so, the tendency of the milk 
to clot in the stomach is practically eliminated. The 
amount of colic and suffering due to milk clotting in 
the infant's stomach, is difficult to estimate, but it is 
undoubtedly considerable. 

Rations. Infants and children like young animals, 
require slightly changed rations with advancing age. 
Thus in some of the laboratories where milk is modi- 
fied on a large scale, the percentages vary as follows : 



Age of Child 


Fat, % 


Sugar, % 


Protein, % 


One week 


2.00 
3.OO 
3-50 
3-5° 

3-75 
4.00 


4-5° 
6.00 
6.50 
6.50 
6.50 
6.50 


0.75 
I . OO 


Four weeks 


Seven weeks 


I.25 
1.25 
I.50 

i-75 


Fourteen weeks 


Twenty weeks 


Thirty weeks 





It is not practicable for the average milk dealer to 
furnish different grades of modified milk; what he must 
do is to strike an average composition. 



174 MARKET DAIRYING 

Simple Modification. An easy method of modify- 
ing milk in the home is discussed in Chapter XXVIII. 
This method is recommended to those who are not able 
to procure modified market milk. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

SOFT AND FANCY CHEESE MAKING. 

There is a rapidly growing demand everywhere for the 
soft varieties of cheese such as cottage, Neufchatel and 
cream, and the manufacture of this class of cheese 
is becoming a very remunerative branch of dairying. 
The soft varieties of cheese are deservedly becoming pop- 
ular because of their wholesomeness and palatability. 

COTTAGE CHEESE MAKING. 

Cottage cheese, which is made from skim-milk, may 
be manufactured in either of two ways, namely, with 
or without rennet extract. The cheese resulting from 
the use of rennet extract is finer grained though some- 
what more acid than that obtained without rennet. 

Rennet Method. When rennet extract is used, the 
night's separator skim-milk is held at a temperature of 
about 65 degrees F. until the following morning when 
it should show about 0.2 per cent acid. The temperature 
is then raised to 75 degrees F., and rennet extract 
added to the skim-milk at the rate of one-twentieth of an 
ounce (about one-half teaspoonful) per hundred pounds 
of milk. To insure an even distribution of the rennet, 
it should be diluted with a cup of water before mixing 
it with the milk. As soon as the rennet has been thor- 
oughly mixed with the milk, the latter should be allowed 

175 



176 MARKET DAIRYING 

to stand quietly at a temperature of about 70 to 75 de- 
grees F. for 24 hours, when a firm curd will have formed. 
The curd is now carefully dumped into a cotton bag or 
strainer and allowed to drain until all free moisture 
has escaped. Salt is next added at the rate of one and 
one-half ounces per ten pounds of cheese. The palat- 
ability of the cheese is much improved by adding a small 
amount of rich cream to it. 

Fairly good results may be obtained by omitting the 
rennet. 

Starter Method. This method yields the highest 
quality of cheese when fine flavored starter is used. Put 
the skim-milk into a vat and sour it with a good starter 
at a temperature of between 90 and 95 degrees F. The 
more starter used, up to 25 per cent, the better the qual- 
ity of the cheese. Thoroughly mix the starter with the 
skim-milk and allow to remain undisturbed until firmly 
curdled. When this stage is reached, cut the curd, the 
same as in cheddar cheese making, and at once begin 
stirring by hand. Raise the temperature to 104 degrees 
F., keeping the curd constantly stirred during the heat- 
ing process. After this the curd should be stirred occa- 
sionally for about 40 minutes, when the whey may be 
drained off. 

The draining is best accomplished in a tin strainer 
covered with a piece of cheesecloth. The curd must be 
hand-stirred as soon as it has been dumped into the 
strainer, but the stirring should be done very gently at 
the start to prevent loss by mashing the curd particles. 
Continue the stirring until the curd is firm enough to pre- 
vent the particles sticking together, which usually re- 
quires about five minutes. As soon as the curd has been 



SOFT AND FANCY CHBBSB MAKING 177 

stirred dry enough it is wrapped in the cloth strainer 
and squeezed with the hands until most of the free whey 
has been removed, that is, until it is dry enough to per- 
mit granulating it to fine particles by rubbing with the 
hands. 

When the curd has been squeezed dry enough and 
thoroughly granulated by rubbing and stirring with the 
hands, it should be salted at the rate of about one and 
one-half ounces of salt per ten pounds of curd. After 
salting the curd is soaked with skim-milk or milk; or 
where a high quality of cheese is desired a thin cream 
should be used. 

Packing Cottage Cheese. The same packages will 
answer for cheese made by either of the two methods. 
For simplicity and cheapness there is no better method of 
packing than the following: With an ordinary butter 
printer, print the cheese in one-pound blocks and then cut 
the blocks in two. This will make packages weighing one- 
half pound each. The half-pound blocks are wrapped 
in thin parchment or oiled paper in a manner similar 
to wrapping one-pound butter prints. The sheets of 
parchment or oiled paper for this purpose should be six 
inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Any dealer 
in dairy supplies can furnish this paper at a very small 
cost. If the cheese is to be sold in one pound packages 
the wrapping paper should be eight and one-half inches 
wide by ten and one-half inches long. Cottage cheese 
may also be packed in water-proof packages such as are 
used for carrying ice cream, oysters, etc. The fiber but- 
ter boxes, made of pasteboard and lined with parchment 
paper, will also be found satisfactory for this purpose. 
Both of the above styles of package should be lined with 



178 ' MARKET DAIRYING 

parchment paper before putting the cheese into them. 

Some use wide-mouthed, single service milk bottles for 
packing cottage cheese. 

Marketing. When much cheese is made, it should 
be marketed at fancy grocery stores and meat markets. 
If made on farms that operate daily milk routes in the 
city, much cheese can be sold on these routes to con- 
sumers direct, thus saving the middleman's profits. The 
average retail price of the cheese is ten cents per pound. 

The yield of cottage cheese, when made according to 
the methods herein described will approximate 15 pounds 
of cheese per 100 pounds of skim-milk. 

MAKING NEUFCHATEI, CHEKSE. 

There are two methods by which American Neufchatel 
cheese may be made, namely, with and without the use 
of starter. The method of making the cheese without 
starter is as follows : Place the night's milk preferably in 
shotgun cans and cool to a temperature as near 70 de- 
grees F. as possible. Next add at the rate of about one 
teaspoonful of rennet extract for each hundred pounds of 
whole milk. The rennet should first be diluted in a cup 
of water and then thoroughly mixed with the milk. If 
the temperature of the milk is kept at 70 degrees F. it 
will be thoroughly curdled in from 15 to 20 hours, when 
it should be perceptibly sour to the taste. The actual 
amount of acidity at this stage should be about 0.3 per 
cent. The curd is now poured onto a strainer rack cov- 
ered with a cotton strainer cloth, or it may be poured 
or dipped into cotton bags, to drain. After the curd has 
drained an hour, light pressure should be applied to it 
which may be gradually increased to hasten the draining. 



SOFT AND FANCY CHEESE MAKING 179 

As a rule, it is desirable to have the draining com- 
pleted in about three hours, the temperature during this 
process being maintained at about 70 degrees F. Apply- 
ing moderate pressure will hasten the draining and is 
recommended for best results. As soon as the curd has 
sufficiently drained, salt is added at the rate of one ounce 
to every five or six pounds of cheese. The cheese should 
be thoroughly kneaded with the hands to distribute the 
salt evenly and to give it a smooth consistency. It is 
now molded into cylindrical packages, 1^x2% inches, 
weighing one-fourth of a pound. These cylindrical 
masses of cheese are first wrapped in thin parchment or 
oiled paper and then wrapped in tin foil. These pack- 
ages usually retail at five cents each. 

Starter Method. When starter is used a better flav- 
ored and more uniform cheese is possible. The starter 
may consist of well thickened whole milk allowed to 
sour in a natural way, but whole milk soured with pure 
culture of lactic acid bacteria is preferable. Where pure 
cultures are used the whole milk intended for starter 
should be pasteurized before inoculating it with the cul- 
ture. 

When starter is used the cheese is made as follows: 
Add at the rate of one pound of starter to four pounds 
of fresh whole milk. The mixture should have a tem- 
perature of about 80 degrees F. Next add at the rate 
of one-half tablespoonful of rennet extract per hundred 
pounds of milk, mixing the rennet with the milk as 
previously explained. When thoroughly curdled, which 
usually requires about one hour, the curd is ready to 
drain. The rest of the process is carried out the same as 
when no starter is used, 



180 MARKET DAIRYING 

Neufchatel cheese yields from 18 to 20 pounds per 
100 pounds of milk. 

CREAM CHEESE. 

Cream cheese is made from milk containing about ten 
per cent butter fat; that is, milk reinforced with cream. 
Like Neufchatel cheese, this cheese may be made with 
and without starter, and the processes are the same as 
with Neufchatel cheese, except that it will be found ad- 
vantageous to have the temperature from three to five 
degrees higher. Much butter fat is saved when making 
cream cheese by the starter method. Cream cheese is 
molded in rectangular forms, I%x2%x2j4 inches, hold- 
ing about one-quarter of a pound. These packages us- 
ually retail at ten cents each. 

CLUB CHEESE. 

Another kind of cheese that is very much relished and 
that can be made by anyone, is known as "club" or 
"potted" cheese. The method of making this cheese is 
as follows : Grind up with an ordinary meat grinder five 
pounds of old, well-ripened cheddar cheese of good fla- 
vor, and mix this with one pound of good butter. The 
mixing is easily accomplished with a bread mixer. The 
mixing should be continued until the cheese has a uni- 
form consistency, free from lumps. Running the mix- 
ture through the grinder a second time and working it 
with the hands will assist in reducing the lumps. This 
cheese can be packed in small tin-top jelly tumblers, cov- 
ering the top of the cheese with parchment paper. This 
makes an exceedingly palatable cheese which retails, as 
a rule, at forty cents a pound. The cheese may also be 
packed in the same manner as Neufchatel 



SOFT AND FANCY CHgESB MAKING 181 

COTTAGE CHEESE FROM BUTTERMILK. 

By mixing at the rate of one pound of skim-milk to 
about five pounds of buttermilk, cottage cheese can be 
made from buttermilk in essentially the same way as 
from skim-milk. 

Cottage cheese can be made from buttermilk without 
the addition of skim-milk, by a special method which 
originated at the Wisconsin Dairy School. The method 
is briefly as follows:* 

The buttermilk is curdled by heating it to 8o° F. and 
then allowing it to stand undisturbed for one hour. It 
is then heated to 130 and after standing quiet for about 
an hour, the clear whey is drawn off the curd, and the 
latter is placed on a draining rack, which is covered with 
cheese-cloth. Here it remains half a day or over night, 
until as dry as desired, when it is salted at the rate of 
one and one-half pounds of salt per hundred pounds of 
curd. The curd is then ready for use. 

Cream containing 50 per cent or more fat, as well as 
buttermilk from cream which has been pasteurized when 
very sour, is not suitable for making buttermilk cheese 
by the Wisconsin method. The curd from such butter- 
milk is always so fine grained that it runs through the 
draining cloth and is lost. 

WHEY, OR RICOTTA CHEESE. 

Ricotta cheese, which is popularly known as Ziger 
or Whey cheese, is made from the whey resulting from 
the manufacture of other varieties of cheese, such as 

•Bulletin No. 211, Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



182 MARKET DAIRYING 

cheddar, and consists principally of albumen. The whey 
is ripened to 0.3 per cent acidity, either naturally or 
by the addition of sour whey. It is then heated to 165 
to 1 75 F., usually by turning live steam directly into 
it. It is now allowed to stand undisturbed a few min- 
utes when the fat may be skimmed off. After the re- 
moval of the fat, enough sour whey is added to bring 
the acidity to 0.4 per cent. It is now further heated 
with live steam until the temperature has reached as 
near 212 F. as possible. The albumen now slowly 
rises to the surface in a flaky condition and is skimmed 
off. Salt is applied at the rate of about \]/z ounces per 
10 pounds of curd. 

This cheese has a tendency to dry out, which is pre- 
vented by keeping it packed in stone jars and covering 
it with whey. It is usually marketed in small quantities 
wrapped in parchment paper. 

Some prefer this cheese treated with cream. 

PIMENTO CHEESE. 

Pimento cheese is American Neufchatel cheese treated 
with ground red peppers. Usually from one-fourth to 
one-half pound of the pepper is used per ten pounds of 
Neufchatel cheese. The peppers are ground up fine 
by running them through a meat mincing machine after 
which they are thoroughly mixed with the cheese. 
Pimento cheese is very popular with those who like 
spicy foods. It is packed in the same manner as Neuf- 
chatel cheese. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

CERTIFIED MILK. 

Definition. Certified milk is milk produced under 
conditions imposed by medical milk commissions, which 
usually employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a 
chemist to look after the production of the milk. It must 




Fig. 48. —Sanitary Dairy Barn. (Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 

be free from disease germs and preservatives, must have 
a known chemical composition, and must be so produced 
and handled as to insure a minimum numoer of bacteria. 

183 



184 MARKET DAIRYING 

If the producer has complied with all the requirements 
he is furnished a certificate by the commission, which 
permits him to use the "certified" label on his products. 

The term "certified milk" is registered in the United 
States patent office and its use is legally permitted only 
on milk approved by medical milk commissions. 

Uses. Certified milk is now largely used for infants 
and invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increasing 




Fig. 49. —Truman Sanitary Milk Pail. (Storrs, Conn. Station.) 

use made of this milk by the better informed people who 
realize the unsanitary condition of average market milk. 
Certified milk is the means of saving the lives of thou- 
sands of infants and its increasing use offers splendid 
opportunities for dairymen who are in a position to 
meet the requirements laid aown by medical commissions. 
Production and Handling. The general conditions 
called for in the production of "certified" milk are essen- 
tially the same as those stated in the chapter on "sanitary 
milk production." 



CERTIFIED MILK 185 

The cows, milkers and premises are regularly inspected, 
and the milk is regularly subjected to chemical and bac- 
teriological tests. The number of bacteria permitted by 
different commissions varies from 10,000 to 30,000 per 
cubic centimeter of milk ; and the fat content ranges from 
about 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 

The milk bottles are sealed preferably with metallic 
caps bearing the date of bottling and the name of the 
commission. Delivery should be made within twenty- 
four hours after the milk is drawn and its temperature 
during this time should not exceed 45 ° F. 

In the dairy house arrangements must be such as to 
reduce contamination to a minimum. A receiving can 
placed in an ante-room is used by the milkers to empty 
their pails, and from this the milk is conducted into the 
milk room. A sterilizer with doors at both ends is pre- 
ferably placed between the milk room and the wash room, 
so as to enable the milkers to get their pails without enter- 
ing the milk room and, at the same time, to allow the 
sterilized bottles to be removed without entering the wash 
room. For details, see appendix. 

Profits. Obviously it costs more to produce certified 
than average market milk, but the additional cost is less, 
as a rule, than the increased price realized. Certified 
dairies that have failed to make money have almost in- 
variably invested more money in buildings and equipment 
than was actually necessary. It has been shown that this 
class of milk may be successfully produced in quite ordi- 
nary buildings and with moderately cheap equipment. 
What is of greatest importance is extreme cleanliness, 
which is achieved mainly through intelligent care and 
management of every detail of the work from start to 
finish. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

RELATIVE MARKET VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 

Many milk producers are so situated as to make it pos- 
sible for them to sell either milk, cream, butter, cheese 
or ice cream. To those so situated the question naturally 
arises, what method of disposal will yield the largest re- 
turns? This, of course, will depend to a great extent 
upon the relative market prices of these products. 

To show how dairymen may determine for themselves 
in what form they can realize most for their milk, a 
simple method of calculation is here presented, in which, 
for purposes of illustration, the following prices have 
been adopted : Milk, seven cents per quart ; 30% cream, 
one dollar per gallon ; butter, twenty-five cents per pound ; 
cheese, thirteen cents per pound; and ice cream, made 
from 15% cream, one dollar per gallon. Using these as 
average prices for a given locality, determine the relative 
returns from one hundred pounds of milk containing 4% 
(4 lbs.) butterfat, (1) when retailed as milk, (2) when 
sold as cream, (3) when sold as butter, (4) when sold 
as cheese, and (5) when sold as ice cream. 

1. Value of Milk. Since milk weighs 2.15 pounds per 
quart, 100 pounds of 4% milk are equal to 46.5 quarts, 
which, at 7 cents per quart, are worth $3.25. 

2. Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will make 13.33 pounds of 30% cream, as determined by 
the following rule: 

186 



VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 187 

Rule: To find the number of pounds of cream that 
can be obtained from a given amount of milk, multiply 
the milk by its test and divide the product by the test 
of the cream. Thus the amount of 30% cream from 
100 pounds of milk testing 4% equals 

100 X 4 , 

= 13.33 pounds. 

Since a gallon of 30% cream weighs practically the 
same as a gallon of water (8.35 lbs.), the 13.33 pounds 
of cream are equal to 1.6 gallons which, at $1.00 per gal- 
lon, are worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound 
for skim-milk, we have 43 cents as the value of the 86 
pounds of skim-milk, which gives a total value of $2.03 
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

2. Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will yield 4 2-^ pounds of butter, because where up-to- 
date methods of creaming and churning are followed 
every pound of butter fat will make I 1-6 pounds of 
butter. Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 cents 
per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk at the 
same price as skim-milk (one-half cent per pound) 48 
cents should be added to the $1.17 as the value of the 
skim-milk and buttermilk, making a total value of $1.65 
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

4. Value of Cheese. Since one pound of butterfat yields 
approximately 2.6 pounds of cured cheddar cheese, 100 
pounds of 4% milk will make 4 X 2.6, or 10.4 pounds of 
cheese, which, at 13 cents per pound, are worth $1.35. 
Allowing 10 cents as the value of the whey from the 100 
pounds of 4% milk, we get a total value of $1.45. 



188 MARKET DAIRYING 

5. Value of Ice Cream. Since a gallon of 15% cream 
weighs 8.45 pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 
3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see formula for calculating- 
cream, p. 240) or, allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2 
gallons of ice cream. At $1.00 per gallon this is worth 
$4.20. To this must be added the value of 73 pounds of 
skim-milk which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth 
37 cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds 
of milk made into ice cream. 

Summary. The preceding calculations show that 100 
pounds of 4% milk are worth 

$145 when sold as cheese, 
1.65 when sold as butter, 
2.03 when sold as cream, 
3.25 when retailed as milk, 
4.57 when sold as ice cream. 

It is to be remembered that the above figures show the 
relative gross returns at the prices given. The net re- 
turns will vary greatly, depending largely upon the near- 
ness to market and the quantity of milk handled ; also to 
some extent upon the use to which the skim-milk is put. 
If fed to pigs and calves the value of skim-milk is less 
than one-half cent per pound; if made into buttermilk or 
cottage cheese its value may range from one to two 
cents per pound. 

Table of Values. The following table of values has 
been prepared for handy reference. The price of milk is 
used as a basis, and the table shows at what prices cream 
and butter must be sold to give the same returns as milk : 



VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



189 



PerCent. of 
Fat in Milk 


When Milk 
sells at 


20% Cream 
must sell at 


30% Cream 
must sell at 


Butter 
must sell at 


3.5 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " 


25c per quart 
31c " 
42c " 

53c " 


36c per quart 
43c " 
59c " 

75c " » 


50c per pound 
60c " 
84c " 
SI .06 " 


4.0 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " 


22c per quart 
27c " 
37c " 
46c " 


31c per quart 
38c " 
50c " 
66c " 


44c per pound 
54c " 
73c " 
93c " 


4.5 


5c per quart 
6c " " 
8c " 
10c " 


20c per quart 
24c " 
32c " 
41c " 


28c per quart 
34c " 
46c ■■ 
59c " 


39c per pound 
47c " 
65c " 
82c " 


5.0 


5c per quart 
6c " 

8c " " 
10c " 


18c per quart 
21c " 
29c " 
37c " 


25c per quart 
30c " 
42c " 
53c " 


35c per pound 

43c " 

59c " 

75c " " 



In calculating the above values, skim-milk and butter- 
milk have been rated at 30 cents per 100 pounds. The 
weight allowed per quart is as follows : Milk, 2.15 pounds ; 
20% cream, 2.1 pounds; and 30% cream, 2.0 pounds. 
The cost of handling and retailing these products, as well 
as the cost of making the butter, has not been considered. 

From the table it will be seen that when 3.5% milk sells 
at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must sell at 25 cents per 
quart, 30% cream at 36 cents per quart, and butter at 50 
cents per pound, to yield equivalent returns. Similarly, 
when 5% milk sells at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must 
sell at 18 cents per quart, 30% cream at 25 cents per 
quart, and butter at 35 cents per pound. 

The table emphasizes the importance of selling milk on 
the basis of its fat content. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



DETECTION OE TAINTED MILK AND CREAM. 

In well regulated dairies the head operator will usually 
be found at the intake every morning carefully examin- 
ing the milk as it arrives at the factory. It requires skill 
and training to detect and properly locate the numerous 
taints to which milk is heir. It also requires considerable 
tact to reform patrons who have been careless in the 
handling of their milk. The best skill available in the 
dairy should therefore be placed in the intake. 

In the daily examination of milk, defects can usually be 
detected by smelling of it as soon as the cover is re- 
moved from the cans. When, however, milk arrives at 
the creamery at a temperature of 50 F. or below, it 
becomes more difficult to detect taints ; indeed during the 
winter when milk is often received in a partly frozen 
condition, experts may be unable to detect faults which 
become quite prominent when the milk is heated to a 
temperature of ioo° F. or above. 

Frequently milk is seeded with undesirable kinds of 
bacteria which have not had time to develop sufficiently 
to manifest themselves at the time the milk is delivered 
to the creamery, but which later in the course of cream 
ripening produce undesirable flavors. It is necessary, 
therefore, in making a thorough examination of milk to 
heat it to a temperature of from 95 ° to ioo° F. and to 
keep it there for some time to permit a vigorous bacterial 
development. Such bacterial development can be carried 
on in what is known as the Wisconsin Curd Test and the 
Gerber fermentation test. 

190 



DETECTION OF TAINTS 191 



WISCONSIN CURD TEST. 



This test originated at the Wisconsin Dairy School. 
The name of the test implies that the samples of milk- 
to be tested are curded, which is accomplished in a man- 
ner similar to that in which milk is curded for cheese 
making. 

The Wisconsin Curd Test is frequently spoxen 01 as 
"fermentation test," since the process involved consists in 
fermenting the milk by holding it at a temperature at 
which the bacterial fermentations go on most rapidly. 

Apparatus. This consists of one pint cylindrical tin 
cans placed in a tin frame, and of a well insulated box 
made so that the tin frame will nicely slide into it. Added 
to this is a case knife, and a small pipette used to measure 
rennet extract. 

The construction of the box and the position of the cans 
inside is illustrated in Fig. 49. This box consists of 
three-eighths inch lumber, the inside of which is lined with 
a quarter inch thickness of felt. Narrow strips are tacked 
on the felt and tin upon these, the object of the strips 
being to prevent conduction of heat by contact of the tin 
with the felt. The cover of the box is constructed in the 
same way and made to fit tight. This construction makes 
it possible to maintain a nearly constant temperature of 
the samples which are surrounded by water as shown in 
the illustration. 

Making the Test. A curd or fermentation test is made 
at the creamery by selecting from each patron about two- 
thirds of a pint of milk and placing this in the tin pint 
cans after they have been thoroughly sterilized. Each 
pint can should be provided with a sterilized cover which 
is placed upon it as soon as the sample has been taken. 



192 



MARKET DAIRYING 



The sample cans are next placed in the insulated box 
provided for them. Here they are warmed by adding 
water at a temperature of 103 ° F. to the box, a tempera- 
ture which should be maintained throughout the whole 
test. 




"EL.T WINING STRIPS OF WOOO 

Fig. 49.— Section through curd test. 

With a sterile thermometer watch the rise in tempera- 
ture until it has reached 86° F. when 10 drops of rennet 
extract are added to each sample and mixed with it for a 
few moments with a sterile case knife. This knife must 
be sterilized for each sample to avoid transferring bacteria 
from one can to another. 

As soon as the milk has curdled it is sliced with the 
case knife to permit the separation of the whey. After 
the whey has been separating for half an hour, the sam- 
ples should be examined for flavor, which can be told far 
better at this stage than is possible by smelling of the milk 
as it arrives at the creamery. 

After the samples have all been carefully examined, 
the whey is poured off at intervals of from twenty to 
forty minutes for not less than eight hours. At the end 



DETECTION OF TAINTS 193 

of this time a mass of curd will be found at the bottom 
of the can in which there has been a vigorous develop- 
ment of bacteria throughout the test. 

If the sample of milk is free from taint, this curd when 
cut with a knife will be perfectly smooth and close. If, 
on the other hand, the sample contains gas germs, these 
in course of eight hours' development will have produced 
enough gas to give the curd an open spongy appearance 
when cut. The openings are usually small and round, 
hence the name "pin holes" has been applied to them in- 
dicating holes the size of a pin's head. 

Whenever, therefore, milk produces a curd that an- 
swers this description it may be taken for granted that it 
contains undesirable bacteria. 

Sometimes the milk may be tainted and yet produce a 
close textured curd, but in such cases the taint can be 
detected by carefully smelling of the curd. ' 

Precautions. In making a test as above outlined two 
things must constantly be kept in mind : first, that to se- 
cure the desired bacterial development, the temperature of 
the samples must be maintained as nearly as possible at 
98 F., which is accomplished by surrounding them with 
water at a temperature of 103 ° ; second, that to avoid con- 
taminating one sample with another, the knife used for 
mixing the rennet with the milk and cutting the curd 
must be sterilized for each can. The thermometer used 
must also be sterile. 

The temperature of the samples can easily be main- 
tained by using a well insulated box like that shown in 
Fig. 51. When a common tin box is used it becomes 
necessary to change the water in it about once every half 
hour. 



194 MARKET DAIRYING 

GERBER FERMENTATION TEST. 

This test is simpler than the Wisconsin Curd Test and 
can be used for both milk and cream. Where milk need 
not be examined specially for gas-producing organisms, 
this test will give as satisfactory results as the curd test. 
The essential difference between the two tests is the elim- 
ination of rennet extract with the Gerber. 

Making the Test; The samples of milk or cream are 
placed in glass tubes which are numbered to correspond 
with the names of the patrons. These tubes are warmed 
in a tin tank containing water whose temperature is main- 
tained at 104 F. throughout the test by placing a lamp 
under the tank. At the end of about six hours the samples 
are examined for flavor, color, taste and consistency. After 
this examination, they are put back into the tank to be re- 
examined after another interval of about six hours. Any 
"off" condition of the milk or cream can usually be told at 
the end of six to twelve hours. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

DETECTION OP PRESERVATIVES AND DIRT. 
PRESERVATIVES IN MILK. 

Milk dealers sometimes add small quantities of pre- 
servatives or antiseptics to milk to prolong its keeping 
quality. These substances check bacterial development, 
and whatever stops the growth of bacteria also acts in- 
juriously upon the human system. For this reason the 
use of preservatives in milk is strictly prohibited by law. 

Among the preservatives most commonly found in 
milk are boric acid and its compounds, formaldehyde 
and salicylic acid and some of its compounds. Methods 
for detecting these substances are given in the following 
paragraphs : 

Boric Acid. This acid, or its compounds, is often 
used as a preservative. While far less harmful than 
many other preservatives, it has been known to cause 
stomach and bowel disturbances, and its use in milk is 
universally condemned. There are a number of methods 
for detecting boric acid, two of which are here described : 

i. Treat a small quantity of milk with a few drops 
of phenolphthalein ; then add, by drops, sodium hydrox- 
ide till a faint pink color is noticeable. Now divide 
the milk between two test tubes, diluting one with an 
equal volume of water and the other with a neutral 
50 per cent solution of glycerin. When no boric acid 
is present, the color of the two tubes will be practically 

195 



196- MARKET DAIRYING 

the same; if boric acid is present, the glycerin tube will 
be lighter, usually white. 

2. Another method commonly used is to treat about 
ioo c.c. of milk with enough sodium or potassium 
hydroxide to render the same alkaline; then evaporate 
to dryness and incinerate; dissolve the ash in water 
slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and filter ; 
dip a piece of turmeric paper in the filtrate and dry at 
212° F. If boric acid is present, the paper will assume 
a reddish brown color. 

Formaldehyde. This is a violent poison which has 
strong antiseptic properties. A trace of it will pre- 
serve milk for a considerable time. As in the case 
of boric acid, a number of methods are available for 
detecting small quantities of this preservative in milk. 
The following method will reveal the preservative, even 
when only a trace of it is present. 

Mix 5 c.c. each of milk and water in a porcelain dish. 
Add io c.c. of hydrochloric acid containing a trace of 
Fe 2 cl 6 , then heat the mixture very slowly. A violet 
color is formed in the presence of formaldehyde. 

Another method of detecting formaldehyde is as fol- 
lows: Mix equal quantities of milk and water in a 
test tube, then add a little of 90 per cent commercial 
sulphuric acid in such a way that the acid will run along 
the side of the tube and form a layer at the bottom. 
In the presence of formaldehyde, a bluish or violet zone 
develops at the junction of the acid and the milk; in 
its absence the zone develops a greenish color. This 
method will detect one part of formaldehyde in 200,000 
parts of milk. 

Salicylic Acid. This acid, while less poisonous than 
formaldehyde, seriously affects digestion and also exerts 



PRESERVATIVES AND DIRT 



197 



an irritant effect upon the kidneys. Its presence in milk 
is easily detected by the following test: 

Add 2 to 3 drops of sulphuric acid and about the same 
amount of ether to 20 c.c. of milk, then shake the mix- 
ture; evaporate the ether solution and treat the residue 
with 40 per cent solution of alcohol, and filter. The 




Fig 50.— Sediment Tester. 

addition of a few drops of ferric chloride to the filtrate 
will produce a violet color in the presence of salicylic 
acid. 

DIRT IN MILK. 

There is undoubtedly more dirt consumed through 
milk than through all other food products combined. 



198 MARKET DAIRYING 

With a reasonable amount of care in milking, the 
amount of, dirt now carried in market milk could easily 
be reduced 75 per cent. 

Producers as a rule do not realize how much dirt 
actually gets into their milk because they are not able 
to see it in the cans except when the cans are care- 
fully emptied, in which case dirt may be noticed in 
the bottom of the can. Sediment is also noticeable in 
dirty bottled milk. 

The best way of demonstrating to producers the con- 
dition of their milk with respect to dirt, is to use sedi- 




Fig. 51.— Cotton Filters. _ 

ment testers like those shown in Figs. 50 and 52. These 
are simple devices for filtering the dirt out of milk. The 
tester shown in Fig. 50 is a small metal container into 
which the milk is poured, the cover clamped on and 
the milk forced through a cotton filter by squeezing 
the air bulb. The device shown in Fig. 52 does away 
with the metal container, the cover with attached air 
bulb being clamped on the milk bottle and the milk 
forced directly from the bottle through the cotton filter. 
Any dirt removed from milk with either of these testers 
is easily seen on the white cotton filters. (See Fig. 51.) 



PRESERVATIVES AND DIRT 



199 



Testers of this kind are being used with much success 
by milk inspectors and milk dealers in getting producers 
to furnish cleaner milk. 




Fig. 52.— Sediment Tester. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

JUDGING MILK AND ITS 'PRODUCTS. 
JUDGING MIUK AND CREAM. 

Official judging of milk and cream is a comparatively 
new matter, and its adoption at dairy shows, state fairs 
and dairy conventions, has naturally followed the gen- 
eral interest manifested everywhere in a pure milk 
supply for towns and cities. The use of the score card 
has been found of especial value in bettering the con- 
ditions surrounding the production and handling of milk 
at the farm. 

Score C#rd. The following is a good specimen of 
the score cards used at the present time : 

Class. Exhibit No 



Item 


Perfect 

Score 


Score 
Allowed 


Remarks 


Bacteria 


35 
25 

10 

10 

10 

5 

5 




Bacteria found per ) 

cubic centimeter ) " " 

j Flavor 


Flavor and odor . . 
Visible dirt 






"j Odor 


Fat 




Per cent found 


Solids not fat .... 




Per cent found 


Acidity 




Per cent found 


Bottle and cap . . . 




j Cap 

} Bottle 


Total 


100 











Exhibitor 

Address 

(Signed) 



Judge 



200 



JUDGING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201 

EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD. 

Bacteria. The maximum number of bacteria per- 
missible per cubic centimeter for a perfect score on bac- 
teria as a rule is 400. Numbers beyond this point will 
detract from the score until 200,000 is reached when the 
score is zero. Deductions from the perfect score are 
made uniform, being proportional to the bacteria count 
between 400 and 200,000. 

A bacteria count as low as 400 per c.c. is possible 
though difficult to attain. By exercising proper clean- 
liness and thoroughly cooling milk, the majority of 
dairymen can keep the bacteria count below 10,000 per 
c.c. A low bacteria count is largely a matter of clean- 
liness and low temperature. 

Flavor and Odor. Flavor refers to taste and odor to 
the aroma detectable by the nose. It is impossible to 
describe a perfect flavor and odor. Anything in the 
least objectionable to the taste or smell will detract from 
the score. Under this head, weedy, stable, manure, 
bitter, rancid, and unclean flavors or odors are most 
common. To obtain a perfect score for flavor and odor, 
perfect cleanliness must prevail, the milk must be kept 
free from odoriferous surroundings and feeding must 
be done after milking, especially when silage, or other 
odoriferous feeds are fed. 

Visible Dirt. Any sediment, however slight, in the 
bottom of the bottle will detract from the score. Most 
milk will show visible dirt unless it has passed through 
a clarifying process. Dust, particles of dirt, hairs or 
particles of litter, and sometimes all of these, are notice- 
able in the bottom of bottled milk. 

The greatest factor in reducing dirt to a minimum is 
Washing the cow's flanks and udder just previous to 



202 MARKET DAIRYING 

milking. The moist condition prevents the dislodge- 
ment of dirt. Another great aid in obtaining clean milk 
is the covered milk pail. 

Fat. To obtain a perfect score on fat, milk, as a 
rule, must contain not less than 4.0%. For each tenth 
below 4.0%, 0.2 point is deducted from the perfect score 
till 3-5% is reached. A whole point is deducted for 
every tenth below 3.5%. Milk with a fat content less 
than 2.y% or less than the legal local limit, is scored 
zero for fat. 

Cream is usually scored perfect for fat when its fat 
content is 20% or above. 

Solids Not Fat. Usually 8.7% or more is required 
for a perfect score on solids not fat. For each tenth 
per cent below 8.7% one point is deducted. Milk con- 
taining less than 7.8% or less than the legal limit, is 
scored zero for solids not fat. 

Solids not fat are not considered in cream. 

Acidity. The limit of acidity for a perfect score is 
0.2%. When milk is thoroughly cooled there is little 
difficulty in keeping the acidity below this limit. 

Bottle and Cap. The following defects detract from 
the perfect score for bottle and cap: Partially filled 
bottle, tinted glass, leaky caps, improperly paraffined 
caps, unprotected caps and anything that in any way 
detracts from the appearance of the package. 

JUDGING BUTTER. 

Butter is judged commercially on the basis of 45 
points for flavor, 25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for 
salt and 5 for package : total 100. 

A score card showing the common defects of butter is 
presented on the following page. 



JUDGING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
BUTTER SCORE CARD 



203 



No. 



Remarks 





•a 

© 
Q 
h 

45 

25 

15 


a : 

u 

O 
O 

♦J 
— :9 


bib : 
a 



s £ 


4 
• 


' Curdy. 
Light. 
Rancid. 


Flavor. 






Fishy. 
Feverish 
Oily or greasy. 








Weedy. 
Stable. 
Unclean. 
High acid. 
t Bitter. 

Poor grain. 


Texture 






Cloudy brine. 
Weak body. 
Too much brine. 
Greasy. 

r Mottles, 
White specks. 
Too high. 








Color 








10 

5 


Too light. 








, Color specks. 
Too much salt. 


Salt 






(Undissolved.) 
Poor salt. 








, Lacks salt. 
' Dirty. 


Package 






Poorly packed. 
Poorly nailed. 


Total 


100 






, Poorly lined. 



Judges 



Bate. 



204 MARKET DAIRYING 

Flavor; Immediately after the sample of butter is 
withdrawn from the package it should be held under the 
nose to ascertain the quality of the aroma (flavor). 
Strictly speaking, flavor refers to the taste. But the 
use of the term flavor in butter judging usually in- 
cludes both taste and aroma, the emphasis resting upon 
the latter. 

It is difficult to describe an ideal butter flavor. It 
may, perhaps, be likened to the flavor of clean, uncon- 
taminated, well ripened cream, that is, it should be rich 
and creamy. 

Curdy flavor is caused by overripened starters or add- 
ing starters to cream while the latter is at too high a 
temperature. Also by ripening very thin cream at high 
temperatures. 

Light flavor is generally due to churning cream too 
sweet. It may be due also to too much washing and to 
the character of the feed. It is well known that good 
succulent June pasturage produces a higher flavored 
butter than average dry winter feed. 

Rancid flavor is due chiefly to overripened cream. The 
age of the milk, cream and butter is also frequently the 
cause of rancidity. Good butter exposed to light and air 
at ordinary temperatures turns rancid in a very short 
time. 

Feverish flavor is noticeable principally in the spring 
of the year when cows are turned out on pasture and 
is, no doubt, due in most cases to the sudden change 
from dry feed to luxuriant pasturage. It is possible that 
this feverish or grassy odor is due partly to the grass 
itself and partly to a feverish condition of the cow caused 
by the sudden change of feed. We find that any feverish 



JUDGING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 205 

condition of the cow will manifest itself in the milk and 
the products therefrom. 

Oily or greasy flavor may be caused by churning and 
working butter at too high a temperature, or by keeping 
the milk and cream at high temperatures. It may also 
be caused by using poor color or too much color. Bad 
smelling color that shows sediment at the bottom should 
not be used. Bacteriologists claim that certain species 
of bacteria have the power of imparting an oily flavor 
to butter. 

Weedy flavors are caused by cows feeding on weeds. 
Leeks or wild onions are frequently the cause of very 
serious trouble when cows have free access to them. 
The trouble may also be caused by exposing milk and 
cream to an atmosphere charged with objectionable odors. 

Fishy flavor, according to L. A. Rogers, is due to 
oxidation which is favored by a high acid cream and 
overworking. The latter favors oxidation by increasing 
the amount of air in butter. 

Stable flavor is caused by lack of cleanliness in milk- 
ing, and by keeping milk too long in, or near, a dirty 
stable. 

Unclean flavors are caused by dirty pails, strainers, 
and cans, filthy creamery conditions, and general un- 
cleanliness in the care and handling of milk. 

High acid flavor is due to oversoured cream or starter. 

Bitter flavor is caused by keeping cream too long at 
low temperatures. 

Texture; This includes three distinct things: (i) 
grain, (2) body, and (3) brine. 

An ideal grain is indicated by a somewhat granular 
appearance when a piece of butter is broken, an appear- 



206 MARKET DAIRYING 

ance quite similar to that of the broken ends of a steel 
rod. 

Body refers to the consistency of butter. In other 
words, it refers to its degree of firmness or its ability 
to "set up" well at ordinary temperatures. 

Brine refers to the amount and character of the water 
in butter. It should be as clear as water and not present 
in such quantities as to run off the trier. 

Poor grain is caused by overworking and overchurn- 
ing; also by too high temperatures in churning and 
working. 

Weak body is usually caused by employing too high 
temperatures in the entire process of manufacture, in- 
cluding the ripening of the cream. These high tempera- 
tures usually result in overripened cream, overchurned 
butter and consequently butter with too high a water 
content. The character of the butter fat also influences 
the body of the butter. 

Too much brine is caused chiefly by underworking and 
by churning to small granules. 

Cloudy brine is caused by churning at too high a tem- 
perature and also by granulating too coarse. Insufficient 
washing has a tendency to produce a cloudy brine. 

Greasy butter is caused by overworking or by handling 
at too high temperatures. 

Color. The essential thing in color is to have it uni- 
form. It should have a little deeper shade than that 
produced by June pasturage. Artificial coloring is there- 
fore necessary. 

Mottles are discolorations in butter caused by the un- 
even distribution of salt. Those portions of the butter 
that contain the most salt will have the deepest color 
because of the attraction of salt for color. Mottles 



JUDGING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 207 

can always be removed from butter by working, but 
frequently the conditions are such as to require over- 
working to secure this end. 

The following are conditions that favor mottles: 

1. Coarse uneven grained salt. 

2. Carelessly adding the salt to the churn. 

3. Butter too cold for working. 

4. Using too cold or too warm wash water. 

5. Too much buttermilk in the butter. 

6. Not enough moisture in butter when worked. 
White specks are due either to curd particles in cream 

caused by overripening and lack of stirring during ripen- 
ing, or to dried and hardened cream. 

Color specks are tiny specks of color caused by using 
a poor grade of color, old color, or color that has been 
kept at too high a temperature. 

Salt. As with color, the essential thing with salt is 
to have it evenly worked through the butter and none 
of it should remain undissolved. 

Undissolved salt may be due to four things : 

1. Poor -salt. 

2. Too much draining before salting. 

3. Salting the butter at too low a temperature. 

4. Too much salt. 

JUDGING CHEDDAR CHEESE. 

Cheese is commonly judged on the basis of 45 points 
for flavor, 30 points for texture, 10 points for color and 
15 points for finish and appearance. Some judges prefer 
to divide the 30 points allowed for texture, giving 15 
points for texture and 15 points for body. This division 
is not essential, however, and the judging of cheese 
will be discussed upon the basis of the following score 
card which gives the common defects found in Cheddar 
cheese : 



208 



MARKET DAIRYING 
CHEESE SCORE CARD 



No. 



Flavor. 



Texture . 



Color. 



Finish or appearance. 



Total. 



V 

u 


o 

u 

V 

F4 


a 


u 
CO 

s 
"5 
< 


45 








30 








10 








15 




100 





Strong 
Rancid 
Acidy 
Sour 

High, Quick 
Low, Flat 
Stable 
Bitter 
Weedy 
I Fruity 



r Curdy 
Pin hole 

J Swiss hole 

) Pasty 
Mealy 

LGorky 



Mottled, wavy 

Pale 

Too high 



f Dirty 
I Moldy 
i Uneven 
Cracked 
Wrinkled 



Remarks: 



Judge 



Date. 



JUDGING MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 209 

Flavor. The plug of cheese for examination should 
be drawn from the top of the cheese and not from the 
side as is sometimes done. As soon as removed from 
the cheese, the plug is held close to the nose to get 
the flavor. The flavor is further tested at the final ex- 
amination for texture when the cheese is kneaded and 
molded in the hands. This process warms the cheese to 
near the temperature of the hands thus enabling it to 
give off more of its odor or aroma. 

It is difficult to describe an ideal cheese flavor; per- 
haps the best that may be said is that it should be clean 
and nutty. Some of the defects in flavor given on the 
score card have already been described under butter 
judging, and the balance of the defects are sufficiently 
suggestive to require no further explanation. It may 
be stated that a sour cheese is one containing an excess 
of acidy whey and is usually soft. An acidy cheese is 
more or less brittle and smells acidy. 

Texture. An ideal textured cheese is solid, waxy 
and meaty. When the plug of cheese is broken the 
ends should not be smooth but have a flinty appearance. 
Pinholes indicate that the cheese was made from gassy 
milk. Swiss holes or openings about the size of buck- 
shot indicate an insufficient development of acid in the 
curd. Curdy cheese is tough and rubbery, indicating 
insufficient ripening. Corky cheese lacks moisture and 
resembles cork. A mealy or crumbly texture is the 
result of too much acid while a pasty texture is the re- 
sult of too much moisture. 

Color* A plug of cheese when held to the light should 
be translucent. A white, pale color indicates too much 
acid. Too much moisture also produces a dead color. 
Mottled cheese may be the result of uneven coloring, 



210 MARKET DAIRYING 

uneven cooking, uneven temperatures or not strain- 
ing the starter. The degree of color does not affect 
the score, as different markets demand different degrees 
of color. Cheese to which no color has been added 
should have an amber color. 

Finish. The surface of the cheese must be entirely 
free from checks or cracks to prevent danger from skip- 
pers. The bandage must be free from wrinkles and the 
edges should be square. Mold is objectionable and can 
be prevented by paraffining, by rubbing the cheese daily, 
or by avoiding a stagnant atmosphere in the curing 
room. Cheese presenting a dirty appearance should be 
severely scored. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

BUYING AND SELLING OX THE BUTTER FAT BASIS. 

Milk and cream should be bought and sold on the 
basis of the amount of butter fat contained in them, 
whether made into butter and cheese, or sold as milk, 
cream and ice cream. In butter making it would be 
considered absurd now-a-days to pay for milk and cream 
on any basis other than the fat basis, because the yield 
of butter is proportional to the amount of butter fat used. 

In the case of market milk and cream, the same num- 
ber of quarts are obtained per hundred pounds regard- 
less of the quality of the milk and cream ; consequently 
milk dealers have found the quality basis of less im- 
portance in their business than butter makers have found 
it in theirs. So far as consumers are concerned, however, 
the quality "basis counts the same in market milk as in 
butter making, because the food value of milk is ap- 
proximately proportional to the per cent of fat contained 
in it. 

Quality and the Producer. Paying for milk by the 
can or hundred, irrespective of its fat content except 
that it must not fall below a certain minimum, has a 
demoralizing effect on producers. Under such conditions 
the moment a farmer changes from the creamery or 
cheese factory where he has been paid on the quality 
basis, he begins to look for cows which produce large 
yields but a relatively poor quality of milk. A change 
of individual cows, and, as often happens, a complete 

211 



212 MARKET DAIRYING 

change from one breed to another, is attended with con- 
siderable expense as well as with a certain amount of 
danger. There is always the risk of introducing disease 
into the herd where changes of this kind are made. 

One of the great drawbacks to the gallon or hundred- 
weight basis, therefore, is the handicap which it places 
upon herd improvement. It is now almost universally 
conceded that weighing and testing the milk from each 
cow individually is one of the greatest aids in building 
up a dairy herd. Where milk is sold by* weight alone, 
half the benefits of this system are lost to the producer. 
It is possible, for instance, that the most valuable cow in 
the herd, so far as total butter fat production is con- 
cerned, will be found unprofitable to keep if her milk 
yield is low and the quality very rich. There can be 
no satisfactory herd improvement unless the total but- 
ter fat can be taken into account, and this is impractic- 
able when the milk is sold on the quantity basis alone. 

Quality and the Consumer. Wide variations exist 
at present in the quality of market milks. Analyses of 
normal market milks show a variation in fat content of 
from 3% to 5-5%. And there is a great deal of milk 
sold illegally containing only 2.5% butter fat. 

From a nutritive standpoint butter fat is the most 
valuable constituent of milk, but this is not the only 
constituent that varies in market milks. Milk which is 
rich in butter fat is likewise rich in other milk solids, 
such as casein, sugar and albumen ; so that the richer 
the milk is in butter fat the richer it is in solids other 
than fat. For this reason it would not be fair to say 
that 100 pounds of 4.5% milk contains only one pound 
more food material than 100 pounds of 3.5% milk. 

The casein, next to the butter fat, is the most valu- 



BUYING AND SELLING ON PAT BASIS 213 

able food constituent of milk, and the quantity of this in 
any sample of milk bears a rather definite relation to 
the butter fat in the same milk, as the following figures 
of Dr. Van Slyke, of the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment 
Station, show: 



x cent of fat in milk. 


Per cent of casein in milk. 


3-0 


2. I 


3-5 


2-3 


4.0 


2-5 


4-5 


2.7 


5-o 


2.9 



The other constituents of milk, while they vary ac- 
cording to the butter fat content, do not vary as much 
as the casein. 

It is fair to say that in point of food value, a quart 
of 5.5% milk is worth at least 50% more than a quart 
of 3.0%. In other words, when a consumer pays 9 
cents a quart for 5.5% milk he is paying no more for 
the actual amount of food he gets than when he pays 
6 cents a quart for 3% milk. 

It is as much a business proposition for consumers 
to consider the food value of milk as it is to consider 
the quality of cloth they buy. Milk should be bought 
under a guarantee as to its quality, which guarantee the 
consumer can enforce by having his milk tested oc- 
casionally for butter fat. The cream line on the bottle, 
upon which consumers rely more or less, is not a sure 
indication of the quality of the milk. 

A definite percentage of butter fat should also be 
guaranteed in cream. This is especially important since 
the homogenizing of cream and the frequent use of 
viscogen by milk dealers makes it impossible to place 



214 MARKET DAIRYING 

any reliance upon consistency as an index to quality. 
Both the homogenizing process and the use of viscogen 
materially increase the body or consistency, thus making 
cream look much richer than it actually is. 

Ice cream, too, should be paid for on the basis of 
the amount of fat it contains. While generally used as 
a delicacy or dessert, its high food value when made 
from good cream justifies a far larger consumption of 
this product. 

Quality and the Milk Dealer. Because the bulk of 
consumers have hitherto been so indifferent regarding 
the amount of butter fat in the milk they buy, milk 
dealers have made few efforts to volunteer supplying 
milk of special quality and for the same reason they 
have not been obliged to pay much attention to the 
quality of the milk they buy, except that it comes within 
the limits prescribed by law. 

As already pointed out, the system of handling milk 
regardless of its quality is wrong and has a demoraliz- 
ing influence on the milk trade, and because of this, a 
change to the quality basis must come sooner or later. 
Indeed in some sections, notably in the east, milk deal- 
ers are beginning to guarantee the quality of the milk 
they sell and with very satisfactory results. The mini- 
mum per cent of butter fat guaranteed is usually stamped 
on the bottle cap. This is in line with progress in the 
milk business, and it is hoped that the system of guar- 
anteeing the quality of milk will become general. 

In buying cream, many milk dealers and ice cream 
manufacturers pay a certain price per gallon guaranteed 
to contain a certain per cent of fat. Others buy cream 
by the gallon, paying a certain price based upon a 



BUYING AND S ELLIS G ON FAT BASIS 215 

certain test and paying a unit price for each per cent 
of fat abovje the actual test required. The proper 
method of buying cream is to pay a definite price for 
each pound of butter fat contained in it. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
the: care: of milk in the: home:. 

No matter how good the condition of the milk when 
delivered, if carelessly handled in the home it will keep 
sweet but a very short time and the dairyman will get 
the blame. It is of vital interest to dairymen, therefore, 
to instruct their customers in the proper care of the milk 
in the home. 

There is no doubt that a great deal of good milk 
is spoiled in the home of the consumer. This, as a 
rule, is the result of ignorance. Few consumers have a 
good knowledge of milk and, therefore, do not know how 
to care for it. If milk producers will bring the following 
suggestions to the attention of their customers, it may 
relieve them of much of the complaint they have hitherto 
been obliged to suffer : 

Instructions to Consumers. To keep milk and 
cream sweet and pure, they must be kept cold and clean. 
As soon as the milk is delivered, it should be put in 
a cool place — a clean refrigerator if possible. The vessels 
in which the milk and cream are kept must be sterile 
and covered. Vessels are not sterile unless they have 
been kept in boiling water for five minutes and then 
inverted upon a clean shelf without wiping. 

216 



CARE OF MILK IX THE HOME 217 

On account of their great absorption properties milk 
and cream must be kept in covered vessels, especially when 
placed in the kitchen or cellar or possibly in the refrigera- 
tor with fruits and vegetables. Aside from absorbing 
odors when exposed in these places, they will also take 
up bacteria which will shorten their keeping quality. 

At 45 F. milk may be kept perfectly sweet for twenty- 
four hours, while at a temperature of 70 ° it may sour in 
less than six hours. This emphasizes the importance of 
cold in preserving milk and cream. 

Pour milk from one vessel to another as little as pos- 
sible to avoid contamination. The best plan is to keep 
it in the original bottles. 

Do not add new milk to old milk; neither add warm 
milk to cold. 

The tops of the bottles should always be washed before 
removing any milk. They are more or less contaminated 
with dust during transportation and also become soiled 
from the hands. 

Always clean the bottles before returning them. 

Finally it. is well to remember that the lowest-priced 
milk is usually also the poorest and dirtiest. Such milk 
in the end will prove the most expensive. 

home: pasteurization. 

Milk used for baby feeding should be pasteurized in 
the home regardless of whether it has been previously 
pasteurized or not. The best of pasteurized milk needs 
re-pasteurizing to destroy the bacteria that have de- 
veloped in the interim between pasteurization and de- 
livery. 

A simple method of pasteurizing in the home is as 



218 MARKET DAIRYING 

follows: Place the milk in a sterile double boiler and 
heat for thirty minutes at a temperature of 140 to 
145 ° F. Then quickly cool and keep at a temperature 
of 50 P\ or below until all has been consumed. The 
lower the temperature at which the milk is kept the 
less chance for bacterial development. The milk should 
be frequently stirred during the heating process. A 
reliable thermometer is indispensible. 

MODIFYING MILK IN THE HOME. 

Where market modified milk is not available, the fol- 
lowing simple method of modifying cow's milk for baby 
feeding may be used with good success in all homes: 
Take a quart of rich milk and pour out two-thirds of 
the contents, which will contain most of the cream; 
add water to the enriched milk, using one part water to 
two parts milk; next add a little more than two level 
tablespoonfuls of milk sugar, and neutralize the mix- 
ture by adding two to three tablespoonfuls of viscogen 
(see page 113). Now pasteurize the mixture as directed 
under "home pasteurization." 

The amount of viscogen required to neutralize the 
milk will depend upon the acidity of the milk and the 
strength of the viscogen solution. The amount required 
can easily be determined by adding a few drops of 
phenolphthalein, dissolved in alcohol, to a small measured 
amount of milk. In the presence of acid the color of 
the milk remains unchanged, but as soon as the milk 
becomes alkaline it changes to a pink color. Standard 
lime water kept at drug stores is far weaker than 
viscogen, requiring about one part of lime water to 
neutralize two parts of milk 

If there is any tendency to constipation in feeding 



CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME 219 

milk prepared according to the above directions, the 
milk should be diluted with oat meal water instead of 
plain water. The oat meal water is prepared by add- 
ing a tablespoonful of rolled oats to a pint of water 
and boiling the mixture for at least thirty minutes. 
Strain through several thicknesses of cheese cloth and 
use the filtrate. The use of oat meal water in place 
of plain water in diluting milk is especially recommended 
for babies over three months of age when a more con- 
centrated ration should be fed. The addition of cream 
is also desirable with advancing age. 

One important precaution in successful baby feeding 
is to wash the nipples and bottles in hot water to which 
some alkali has been added, and to keep them well steril- 
ized by boiling them in water. Frequent boiling in lime 
water is desirable. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

KEEPING MII.K AND CREAM ACCOUNTS. 

Various methods are followed in keeping accounts with 
patrons, but nearly all of them involve the use of tickets, 
route book, and some form of ledger. The method here 
described is recommended because of its simplicity. 

Tickets. Most customers prefer to settle their milk 
and cream accounts daily. This they do by purchasing a 
quantity of tickets from the milkman and handing them 
out every time milk or cream is purchased. 

The tickets should be used but once. Where they are 
repeatedly used they become dirty and a real source of 
danger. Passing from one household to another they 
are likely to become contaminated with disease germs 
and thus become the means of disseminating disease. 

The coupon ticket presented on the next page is one of 
the most satisfactory in use at the present time. The 
portion of the ticket above the perforations is retained by 
the milkman. If the ticket is paid for at the time of pur- 
chase, this must be indicated on the stub retained by the 
dairyman as well as on the customer's ticket. 

Coupon tickets are also used for cream and buttermilk. 
Tickets for different products should have different 
colors. 

Tickets are not absolutely necessary ; indeed, many cus- 
tomers prefer to do without them. Where no tickets are 



220 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS 221 



To TICKETS $1.00. MILK. Q^</,(H3l 



MILK. 

Mr....C?.« t?*#??rrr: 

To SPRING VALLEY DAIRY, Dr. 

J. L. JONES. Prop., Middleton, N. Y. 



M2&4- * mS 

j g SPRING VaJlE 



To TICKETS $1 00. 

Received Payment 
Date . 



t- SPRING VALLEY OAIRY. SPRING VAljLEY OAIRY. 

I ONE Of. MILK 2 I ONE QT. MILK 

o MIDDLETON. N. Y. ^1° MIDDLETON. N. Y. * 

j SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o j £ SPRING VA?LEY DAIRY. o 

S^ONE QT. MILK 2 j! ONE QT. MILK 2 

o MIDDLETjDN. N. Y. ^*° MIDOLETDN, N. Y. * 

•-: SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o t ^ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. © 

= ONE Qfr. MILK 2 f ! ONE QT. MILK 2 

o MIDDLETON. N. Y. *[® MIDDLETON, N. Y. ? 

£ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o j _: SPRING VALLEY DaTrY. © 

l ONE Of. MILK 2 I ONE QJ. MILK | 

~ MIDDLETON. N. Y. ^J® MIDDLETON, N. Y. * 



£ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o j ^ SPRING VAQ.EY DaTrY. 

= ONE QT. MILK J = ONE QT- MILK 5 

© MIDDLeIoN. N. Y. 5 ! o MIDOLETfoN. N. Y. * 

Coupon Ticket. 



222 



MARKET DAIRYING 



used, an account is rendered at the end of the month 
similar to that rendered by the grocer. 

Route Book.- It is evident that if customers were 
always supplied with tickets and regularly paid for each 
delivery of milk or cream, no further record would 
be necessary. But customers will run out of tickets oc- 
casionally as well as forget to regularly hand them out, 
hence it is necessary for drivers to carry with them a 
record or route book in which each transaction is recorded 
at the time it is made. A form suitable for this purpose 
is shown below. 



£Uta>yyVi*y<—, &■• % 


£lsyL<4^™-~,&' ft 


% 

a 

1 


9 

4 
D 

3 

o 


MILK 


CREAM 


B M 


BOTTLES. 


Q 

2 

B 

< 
o 


MILK. 


CREAM. 


B. M 


BOTTLES. 


| 


\ 


i 

s 


I 


o 






2 
I 




m 


1 
s 
or 


i 

g 


1 

s 


\ 


1 

B 


I 


1 


a 
a 
z 


i 






































t 






































• 













































































Form of Route Book. 



The route book consists of loose leaves, upon which 
the names of customers are arranged alphabetically. The 
leaves are renewed each month, the old one being placed 
on file for future reference. The letters b. m. stand for 
buttermilk. 

Ledger. As a rule all accounts are settled monthly. 
The ledger form shown below serves satisfactorily as a 
permanent monthly record. 

On the debit side are recorded the sales and the total 
value of the tickets purchased. On the credit side are 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS 



223 



recorded all the receipts for the same period. The balance 
represents the difference between the debits and credits. 



Dr. 


( )f6*^ $yyic£i 


Cr. 


DATE 
IMS. 


a 

1 

a 


TICKETS. 


i 

a 


DATE 
1908 


X 


TICKBTB. 


i 


i 

i 


i 


is 

■ 


1 


■ 

g 


fa 


, Jan 1-31 


too 


% 


10 


/(? 


ST> 


Jan 1-3) 


6.00 


»/0 


i 


44 


1 












Bal. Jan Si 


3<h> 


4- 





* V 


, Bal Fib 1 
1 


2. 00 


* 


,2 


¥ 


1 


r-^ 




=H 


. Fwm 1-29 










-t 





Form of Ledger. 

Monthly Statement. At the end of each month a 
statement should be rendered to customers showing their 
indebtedness. A form like that herewith shown answers 
the purpose satisfactorily. 



SPRINUDALE SANITARY DAIBY, 

4,C. BOONS. rroprt..v>r 



Ma. J&L 



jzfyi+ie/ 



REIDNVILJLE. N. H. 



toSPRINGDALE SANITARY DAIRY, 

J C. BOONE. Proprietor 



Htf-J-2* 



<&a^*^<&* 3 ZJ. / 



t+o yi***/^ Y*<J2*; <& fi- 



ll ^iXCC*. 



Jo 



® %c 



$~ $<~**Z4- ^gg>v>H^- e £- 



&JUL4L 



ho> «fi -sts^sAlZZcSi^ULd) htt&LL, f 



JV 



Xo 



UT 



g 



W 



00 



ZiT 



Monthly Statement. 



224 MARKET DAIRYING 

Order Book for Supplies. For convenience as well 
as for permanent record, all orders should be made in 
duplicate in a book specially made for the purpose. The 
leaves in the order book are alternately marked "original" 
and "duplicate," the duplicate being made at the same 
time as the original by using carbon paper between the 
two. A suitable form of order blank is shown below. 

Original Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 

J. C. Boone, Prop. 

Order No Reidville, N. H 190. . 

To 

Dear Sir: Please deliver by the following: 



Invoice and ship to 

Springdale Sanitary Dairy, 

J. C. Boone, Prop., Reidville, N. H. 

Customer's Record Sheet. In place of tickets, milk 
dealers now usually leave cards with each customer. 
Each of these cards covers a period of one month and is 
provided with blank spaces in which the consumer indi- 
cates his daily wants in the line of milk, cream, etc. The 
milk dealer transcribes these wants into his route book, 
leaving the cards entirely in the possession of the cus- 
tomers. A sample of such cards is shown on the follow- 
ing page. 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS 



225 



THE WAUCOSTA DAIRY CO. 

174 PINE STREET. 
Pasteurized milk and cream, buttermilk, cottage cheese, 
cultured milk and butter. 

Account for JUNE 191 2. 



Name . 
Address 



V 


Milk 


Cream 


B. M. 


Cheese 


C Milk 


Butter 


43 


Q 


Qts. | Pts. 


y 2 pt. 1 pt. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. | Pts. 


Lbs. 


0^ 


1 






















2 






















3 






















4 






















fi 






















6 






















7 






















8 






















9 






















10 






















11 






















12 






















13 






















14 






















15 






















16 






















17 






















18 






















19 






















'?,() 






















21 






















22 






















23 






















24 






















25 






















2fi 






















27 






















28 






















29 






















30 






















31 






















Tt'l 













































Note: This card is your property and all orders must be placed thereon 
and card put where driver can see it. Do not pay driver unless he signs 
this card. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY. 

The need of safe-guarding the milk supply of towns 
and cities becomes evident when we consider the extent 
to which milk acts as a carrier of infectious diseases. 
During the past twenty years, more than one hundred 
and fifty epidemics of typhoid fever have been traced to 
milk infected with the typhoid bacillus. There are records 
of. twenty-eight epidemics of diphtheria and eighty or 
more of scarlet fever. 

Besides these epidemics, it is difficult to estimate how 
many thousands of isolated cases of these and various 
other diseases have been caused by infected market milk. 
The prevalence of tuberculosis among dairy cattle, alone, 
calls for a rigid control of city milk supplies. As stated 
elsewhere in this chapter, a large percentage of 
market milk contains the tubercule organism, and that 
the bovine tubercle bacillus can and does produce tuber- 
culosis in man has been established beyond a doubt by 
the Royal Commission on Human and Animal Tuber- 
culosis and by other notable scientific bodies and individ- 
uals. 

In addition to the danger of infection with strictly 
pathogenic bacteria, milk produced and handled under 
uncleanly conditions contains organisms which, while 
not classed with the pathogenic kinds, are nevertheless 
the cause of a high mortality among children under 
two years of age. These organisms come from manure 

226 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY ?27 

and filth and are largely responsible for the diarrhea, 
summer complaint" or general gastro-intestinal diseases 
so common among infants and young children subsisting 
on cow's milk. 

Importance of Cleanliness. Milk furnishes an ideal 
medium for the development of a large variety of bac- 
teria and for this reason, when improperly handled, it 
is possible for many of the organisms which gain en- 
trance into it, to multiply thousands and even millions 
of times before the milk finally reaches the consumer's 
table. 

Another reason why extreme cleanliness should be 
practiced with milk is the fact that possibly no other 
food is naturally exposed to so many contaminating in- 
fluences as is milk in its production. If water should be 
squeezed by unclean hands from unclean cows confined 
in unclean stables, with particles of dirt and manure 
dropping into it in the process, it is certain that even the 
least fastidious persons would refuse to drink it. Yet 
thousands are daily consuming milk produced under such 
conditions,' apparently oblivious of the filth and bacteria 
contained in it. Two reasons may be given for this ap- 
parent indifference towards milk on the part of a large 
percentage of consumers : ( I ) the general ignorance re- 
garding bacteria and the part they play in milk; (2) the 
opaque color of milk which obscures the bulk of the dirt 
contained in it. 

To improve the quality of milk supplied to towns and 
cities, it is necessary to exercise a reasonable control over 
it, both at the farms as well as in the city where it is 
consumed. Most cities now have a well organized sys- 
tem of milk inspection and great improvement "in the 
composition and in the sanitary conditions surrounding 



228 MARKET DAIRYING 

the production and handling of milk may be looked for 
in the near future. 

Inspection at the Farm. The past few years has 
witnessed a remarkable progress in general dairy inspec- 
tion which has largely come about through the employ- 
ment of better qualified inspectors and the realization by 
the inspectors that their work must be largely of an edu- 
cational character. 

Real effective milk inspection must begin at the farm. 
The cows must be examined to see that none are dis- 
eased ; attention must be given to the stables to see that 
they are kept clean and that they admit sufficient sunlight 
and air to make them sanitary; the purity of the well 
water must be ascertained ; outhouses must be of sanitary 
construction and removed a reasonable distance; suitable 
cleaning and sterilizing facilities should be available; the 
health of those entrusted with the milking and handling 
of the milk should be above suspicion; and in this way 
a hundred different matters need to be looked after. It 
is to be hoped, therefore, that cities will not only provide 
inspection within the city limits, but will have the great- 
est force of inspectors in the country where the milk is 
produced. 

In this connection it is suggested that an important 
qualification of the "country" inspector should be a good 
practical knowledge of herd management and barn con- 
struction. Expensive equipment is not necessary to pro- 
duce pure milk and inspectors that lack the practical 
knowledge to suggest changes within the limits of the 
farmer's pocketbook, are sure to fail in their mission of 
inspection. Stress is laid upon this point because there' 
are hosts of inspectors who have good chemical and 
bacteriological training along milk lines, but who lack 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY 229 

a working knowledge along the lines suggested. 

Another matter for milk inspectors to remember is the 
fact that all unsanitary conditions are not necessarily the 
result of willful neglect or transgression. They may be 
the result of ignorance. In this connection it should be 
remembered that dairy inspection is a comparatively new 
matter and the ideals of many of the inspectors and fram- 
ers of health regulations can be attained only after months 
of patient education. Bacteriology itself is a compara- 
tively new science and it is, therefore, not so remark- 
able that there should be so much ignorance regarding 
bacteria and sanitation in general. 

A score card for judging dairy farms will be found 
in the appendix. 

Tuberculosis and Tuberculin Testing. Undoubtedly 
one of the most pressing problems confronting the city 
milk trade is the matter of obtaining milk from tuberculin 
tested cows. Numerous cities throughout the country 
have endeavored in the past, or are endeavoring at the 
present time, to pass and enforce ordinances requiring 
all milk to come from herds which the tuberculin test 
has shown to be free from tuberculosis. The opposition 
to such ordinances by milk producers is sometimes ex- 
tremely fierce, as recently experienced by the city of Mil- 
waukee. The producers objected to the ordinance re- 
quiring cows to be tested for tuberculosis, maintaining 
that the tuberculin test was not reliable. The matter was 
finally carried to the supreme court, but the courts affirm- 
ed the reliability of the tuberculin test in every case. 

The Tuberculin Test; The usefulness of this test as 
a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact that when a sub- 
stance called "tuberculin" is injected under the skin of 
an animal, the injection is followed by a rise of tempera- 



230 MARKET DAIRYING 

ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the 
temperature remains the same. It must be added, how- 
ever, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails 
as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence 
since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by 
a physical examination. 

The tuberculin test should not be applied to cows in 
heat or shortly before and after calving; neither may 
reliable results be expected with cows suffering from 
garget or other diseases. A period of at least 60 clays 
should elapse before a retest is made for tuberculosis. 

In regard to the reliability of the test, there is plenty 
of evidence to show that when the testing is done by 
competent persons the test is almost infallible. In Cali- 
fornia, for instance, 817 out of 9,618 head tested reacted 
and 817 upon post-mortem examination showed tuber- 
culosis. The accuracy of the test in this case was 100%. 
In Massachusetts 86,223 were tested, and of the 10,760 
that reacted, 99.34% showed tuberculosis. In Wiscon- 
sin, out of 408,000 tested, 24,784 were killed and 98.39% 
of these showed tuberculosis. We might go on this way 
indefinitely showing figures bearing upon the accuracy 
of the tuberculin test, and it is such figures that milk 
producers should be thoroughly acquainted with before 
being asked to submit their cows to the test. 

Regarding the efficiency with which the tuberculin 
testing is done, it cannot be denied that there is often 
occasion for criticism. The testing should be done by 
experienced men who have shown proficiency in this 
always prima facie evidence that the work is being con- 
line. The fact that the tester is a veterinarian is not 
ducted satisfactorily. We have many men that style 
themselves veterinarians who are nothing more nor less 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY 231 

than "quacks," and when the testing is done by such 
men there is bound to be trouble. Efforts should be 
made to secure well-known, competent men to do the 
testing and to lay the qualifications of such men before 
the herd owners. 

Farmers Benefited by Tuberculin Test. There is 
one thing that should be strongly emphasized in the 
matter of getting milk producers to test their cows for 
tuberculosis, and that is the need of healthy cows in con- 
ducting a profitable dairy business. Entirely aside from 
the health consideration so far as they affect consumers 
.of milk, it is an imperative matter for milk producers 
to eliminate tuberculosis from their herds to insure a 
profitable business. Tubercular cows are sick cows, and 
it is folly to expect the best results from sick cows. If 
milk producers would fully understand the detriment 
to their business from keeping tubercular cows, it would 
not be necessary for city ordinances to compel them to 
cull out their infected animals. There is not a first-class 
dairyman in the country today who is willing to con- 
duct a dairy business without assuring himself that his 
herd is free from tuberculosis. This phase of tuberculin 
testing should be properly stressed when asking dairy- 
men to comply with city ordinances affecting the health 
of cows 

Greater co-operation in tuberculin testing can undoubt- 
edly be obtained by refraining from forcing this test 
upon the farmers until they have had a reasonable oppor- 
tunity to become acquainted with the efficiency and value 
of tuberculin testing. Education is needed here just as 
along general sanitary lines, and this should precede 
the enactment of stringent city ordinances. 

Presence of Tubercle Bacilli in Milk. That tuber- 



232 MARKET DAIRYING 

cle bacilli are frequently found in milk is abundantly 
shown by actual statistics. 

Some years ago an investigation was made of the 
milk supply of the city of Washington by the Hygienic 
Laboratory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, 
Washington, D. C. This investigation disclosed the 
fact that approximately 11% of the milk of ioo or more 
dairies investigated contained tubercle bacilli. Out of 
1287 samples of milk collected in fourteen European 
cities, including London, Liverpool, Paris, St. Peters- 
burg, Berlin and Copenhagen, 144, or 11.2%, contained 
tubercle bacilli. 

Bacterial Counts. One of the common aids em- 
ployed in determining the purity of milk is to count the 
number of bacteria contained in it. In general there is 
a fair relation between the number of bacteria and the 
purity of the milk, and when the bacteria count is sup- 
plemented with an inspection of the conditions under 
which the milk is produced and handled it has consider- 
able value. On the other hand, we should not forget 
that a bacterial count alone is likely to lead to very 
erroneous conclusions regarding the wholesomeness of 
milk. To illustrate, let us compare two milks produced 
under identical conditions as to cleanliness. If one of 
the milks has been promptly cooled to 45 ° F. and kept at 
this temperature it may contain only 5000 bacteria per 
c. c. while the other sample, if poorly cooled, may contain 
1,000,000 per c. c. The higher temperature has given 
the bacteria in the latter sample an opportunity for rapid 
development while the temperature (45 ° F.) of the 
former sample has checked the growth of the bacteria 
contained in it. If the milks were produced under clean- 
ly conditions, the increase in the number of bacteria in 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY 233 

the sample kept at the higher temperature will be largely 
of the lactic kind and may be practically as wholesome 
as the sample containing only 5,000 bacteria per c. c. 

From the standpoint of safety, it is of far greater 
consequence to know the kind of bacteria present in milk 
than to know the actual numbers. For example, a sam- 
ple of milk may be produced under the strictest hygienic 
conditions, but if not properly cooled may show ten mil- 
lion bacteria per c. c. On the other hand, another sample 
of milk may be produced from diseased cows under 
filthy condition, if thoroughly cooled immediately after 
milking may contain less than ten million bacteria per 
c. c. 

Where bacterial counts have their greatest value in 
determining the purity of the milk is when the number 
of bacteria does not exceed 20,000 per c. c. Only under 
cleanly conditions can milk be obtained containing less 
than 20,000 bacteria per c. c. when delivered to con- 
sumers. 

Composition of Milk and Cream. Standards for 
milk, cream and ice cream are now found in most states 
and in the larger cities of the country. These standards, 
in the case of milk, call for a minimum per cent of fat, 
solids not fat and total solids ; in cream and ice cream, 
as a rule, only a minimum per cent of fat is considered. 
The total solids are obtained by adding the fat and 
solids not fat, and where there are standards for the 
latter two, no standard for total solids is needed. 

The minimum per cent of fat in milk called for by 
the standards varies from 2.5 to 3.7; for solids not fat 
the minimum varies from 8 to 9.5 per cent, while the 
minimum for total solids varies from n to 13 per cent. 
The minimum limit for fat in cream ranges from 15 to 



234 MARKET DAIRYING 

20 per cent; for ice cream, from 8 to 16 per cent. 

Consumers have hitherto been too indifferent regard- 
ing the composition of the milk they buy; they have 
failed properly to consider milk from the standpoint of 
a food. In most cities there is a wide variation in the 
composition of milk sold by different dealers, and often 
the highest priced milk will be found the cheapest when 
considered from a food standpoint. A quart of milk con- 
taining 5.5 per cent fat is worth fully 50 per cent more 
than one containing only three per cent. 

When compared with other foods, such as meat and 
cheese, milk at prevailing prices is a cheap food. Milk 
dealers should impress this fact upon their patrons. 
Those who sell a good quality of milk will find it profit- 
able to stamp the per cent of fat on the bottle cap. 

City milk authorities should encourage the 5 quality 
basis of handling milk as much as possible, because it 
will promote justice and honesty. The subject ^of buy- 
ing and selling milk on the butter fat basis is discussed 
in chapter XXVII. 

Sterile Milk Vessels. Much disease is disseminated 
through unsterile milk bottles. Every milk dealer's bot- 
tles at one time or another reach homes where there are 
persons affected with some contagious disease, and bot- 
tles will in many cases become infected with the disease 
producing organisms. A number of epidemics have 
been directly traced to unsterile milk bottles. In too 
many instances milk bottles are not sufficiently sterilized, 
and some milk dealers make no attempt whatever to 
have the bottles sterile; the main consideration with 
them is to have the bottles clean. The realization of 
the importance of having milk bottles sterile has started 
a movement to pasteurizing the milk in the bottles. 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY 235 

The matter of sterile milk bottles means a great deal 
to the health of milk consumers, and milk inspectors 
should see to it that this phase of inspection receives the 
necessary consideration. There is urgent need, too, of 
directing more attention to milk cans. A large per- 
centage of milk shipping cans is entirely unfit for han- 
dling milk. Rust\- and badly bruised cans should be con- 
demned. Another matter that should be insisted upon is 
to have the cans washed and sterilized before returning 
them to the milk producers. 

Pasteurization. A number of cities in the United 
States have deemed it wise to require the pasteurization 
of all milk coming from cows that are not known to be 
free from tuberculosis. If properly done, there is no 
question whatever that pasteurization of milk as it is now 
received in most cities, is a safe-guard to health. See 
chapter XII. 

Temperature and Age Regulations. To hold milk 
in good condition until it reaches the consumer requires 
that it be kept at a low temperature. Many cities have 
passed regulations fixing a minimum temperature at 
which milk shall be transported and handled, and good 
results have followed such regulations. 

Low temperatures, however, like many other good 
things, are often abused as in the case of ice cream 
manufacturers. Some hold ice cream weeks before it 
goes to the consumer, believing that no bacterial develop- 
ment takes place at storage temperatures. While cold 
materially retards the growth of all bacteria and com- 
pletely stops that of many, there is probably no minimum 
temperature at which all bacterial development stops. 

That there is abundant bacterial development in cream 
is conclusively shown in Bulletin 41, of the Hygienic 



236 MARKET DAIRYING 

Laboratory, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, 
Washington, D. C. In the investigations reported in 
this bulletin, samples of ice cream were purchased from 
ice cream dealers and stored at temperatures ranging 
form o° to io° above zero F. The initial bacterial count 
of the samples varied from 10,000,000 to 135,000,000 per 
c. c. As a rule, at the end of the third day of storage 
the bacteria had nearly doubled in number, but from 
that point on there was a gradual decrease so that on 
the 14th day the number was less than in the initial count. 
From the 14th day on the number increased again and so 
rapidly that on the 27th day of storage some of the sam- 
ples showed eighteen times as many bacteria as were 
found in the initial count. In other experiments it was 
found that some samples showed marked bacterial growth 
at 5.8 below zero (F.). 

It is usually the obnoxious kinds of bacteria that 
develop at low temperatures. The development of 
ptomaines is most frequently noticeable in milk or cream 
that have been kept at low temperatures a long time. The 
prolonged storage of milk, cream and ice cream at low 
temperatures should, therefore, be prohibited. 

MILK ADULTERATIONS. 

Watering and Skimming. Up to within recent 
years the chief duty of milk inspectors was to guard 
against watering and skimming of milk. Vigilance in 
this matter is still very necessary, though at present the 
efforts of inspectors is directed chiefly along sanitary 
lines. 

In connection with the subject of watering and skim- 
ming, it should be remembered that most states require 



CONTROL OF CITY MILK SUPPLY 237 

that milk be sold as it comes from the cow; that is, it 
would be illegal to remove a part of the fat from milk, 
even if this would leave it above the minimum composi- 
tion fixed by law. 

The matter of detecting watering and skimming is 
discussed in chapter VIII. 

Preservatives and Dirt. Preservatives are often 
found in market milk. Those most commonly used are, 
boracic acid, formalin, salicylic acid and carbonate of 
soda. The use of these preservatives materially prolongs 
the keeping quality of the milk owing to their antiseptic 
properties. Every effort should be made, however, to 
inflict maximum punishment upon users of preservatives 
because their poisonous nature makes them very detri- 
mental to health. 

So far as dirt is concerned, it cannot technically be 
classed as a milk adulterant, though in its effects it may 
be fully as detrimental to health as preservatives. 

The presence of dirt in milk presupposes the presence 
of an undue number of dirt-loving bacteria which, at 
least so far as babies and young children are concerned, 
are perhaps just as detrimental to health as preservatives. 
Filthy milk has killed thousands of children under two 
years of age, and its use should be strictly prohibited. 

The methods of determining preservatives and dirt in 
milk are discussed in Chapter XXV. 

Bad Fermentations. It has already been stated that 
the number of bacteria in any given sample of milk is 
of less consequence than the class to which they belong. 
Filthy milk, if promptly and thoroughly cooled, may 
come within the numerical limit established for bacteria 
,by any particular city, yet such milk may be extremely 



238 MARKET DAIRYING 

unwholesome, because the preponderance of bacteria is 
of the undesirable kind. The character of such milk is 
easily detected by means of fermentation tests described 
in Chapter XXIV. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

BUTTERMAKING. 

This chapter will be discussed under three heads : 

Part I. Theory and Methods of Cream Ripening. 
Part II. The Control of the Ripening Process. 
Part III. Cream Acid Tests. 

PART I. — THEORY AND METHODS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
So important is this process that the success or failure of 
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability to 
exercise the proper control over it. In common creamery 
practice the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies 
from six to twenty- four hours and includes all the changes 
which the cream undergoes from the time it leaves the 
separator to the time it enters the churn. 

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime 
object the development of flavor and aroma in butter, 
two qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In 
addition to this, cream ripening has several minor pur- 
poses, namely : ( I ) renders cream more easily churnable ; 
(2) obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in 
churning; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; 
(4) increases the keeping quality of butter. 

Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, 
239 



240 MARKET DAIRYING 

is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im- 
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the 
increase in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter 
for example is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
reached .6%. 

Exhaustive experiments conducted by the author (See 
Rept. Wis. Exp. Sta., 1905) show that the desirable butter 
flavor develops in the milk serum (skimmilk) and is 
absorbed from this by the butterfat. Such absorption may 
take place either during the ordinary course of cream 
ripening, or during the process of churning as would be 
the case when well ripened skimmilk (starter) is added 
to sweet cream and the mixture churned immediately. 
This explains why in creamery practice such good results 
have been obtained by churning sweet cream immediately 
after the addition of a large amount of well ripened 

starter. 

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 

cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This 
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. It is 



BUTTBRMAKWG 241 

evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
of cream, will facilitate the churning. 

As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream 
the smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
and the consequent greater churnability of same. 

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
since it would be difficult, if not impossible, for most 
creameries to get low enough temperatures for the suc- 
cessful churning of sweet cream. Indeed, many cream- 
eries fail to get a low enough churning temperature for 
ripened cream. 

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
that has been ripened a little too far will posesss very 
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
as the limit when good keeping quality is desired. 

METHODS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

There are three ways in which cream is ripened at the 
present time : 

1. By the unaided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called natural ripening. 

2. By first destroying the bulk of the bacteria in cream 
by heat and then inoculating same with cultures of 
lactic acid bacteria. This method is known as pasteurized 
cream ripening. 



242 MARKET DAIRYING 

3. By the aided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called starter ripening. 

I. NATURAL RIPENING. 

By this is meant the natural souring of the cream. In 
this method no attempt is made to repress the abnormal 
fermentations or to assist in the development of the lactic. 
From the chapter on Milk Fermentations we have learned 
that milk normally contains a number of different kinds 
of germs, frequently as many as a dozen or more. Natur- 
ally, therefore, where this method of ripening is practiced, 
a number of fermentations must go on simultaneously and 
the flavor of the butter is impaired to the extent to which 
the abnormal fermentations have developed. If the cream 
is clean and uncontaminated the lactic fermentation 
greatly predominates and the resulting flavor is good. If, 
on the other hand, the cream happens to contain many bad 
germs the probability is that the abnormal ferments will 
predominate and the flavor of the butter will be badly 
"off." 

Where cream is therefore allowed to take its own course 
in ripening the quality of the butter is a great uncertainty. 
This method, though still practiced by many butter mak- 
ers, is to be condemned as obsolete and unsatisfactory. 

2. PASTEURIZED CREAM RIPENING. 

Theoretically and practically the ideal way of making 
butter is to pasteurize the cream, a process which consists 
in heating cream momentarily to a temperature of 160 
to 185 F. and then quickly cooling to 6o° F. In this 
manner most of the bacteria in the cream are destroyed. 
After this treatment the cream is heavily inoculated with 
the lactic acid bacteria, and the lactic fermentation is given 



BUTTERMAKIXG 243 

a favorable temperature for development. When cream 
is treated in this way the lactic fermentation is practically 
the only one present and a butter with the desirable flavor 
and aroma is the result. It is the only way in which a 
uniform quality of butter can be secured from day to day. 
This system of cream ripening is almost universally fol- 
lowed in Denmark, whose butter is recognized in all the 
world's markets as possessing qualities of superior excel- 
lence. The method is also gradually gaining favor in 
America and its general adoption can only be a matter of 
time. In the chapter on Cream Pasteurization this method 
is discussed in detail. 

3. STARTER RIPENING. 

This method of ripening consists in adding "starters," 
or carefully selected sour milk, to the cream after it leaves 
the separator. A full discussion of starters will be found 
in the following chapter. 

In America this is at present the most popular method 
of cream ripening. While it does not, and can not, give 
the uniformly good results obtained by pasteurizing the 
cream, it'is far superior to natural or unaided ripening. 

When we have a substance which contains many kinds 
of bacteria, there naturally follows a struggle for exist- 
ence and the fittest of the species will predominate. 

We always have a number of different types of bacteria 
in cream, both desirable and undesirable. The latter can 
be held in check by making the conditions as favorable 
as possible for the former. Fortunately, when milk is 
properly cared for the latic acid germs always pre- 
dominate. But where milk is received at the creamery 
from 30 to 200 patrons, undesirable germs are frequently 
present in such large numbers as to seriously endanger 



244 MARKET DAIRYING 

the growth of the lactic acid bacteria. However, when a 
large amount of starter containing only lactic acid germs 
is added to the cream from such milk these organisms are 
certain to predominate. 

The best results with the starter method are secured 
when the milk is received at the creamery in a sweet 
condition and when a large amount of starter is used. 
Generally when milk is received in a sweet condition, 
especially during the summer months, it indicates that 
it has been thoroughly cooled and that the germs are 
present only in small numbers. When the cream from 
such milk is heavily inoculated with lactic acid germs by 
adding a starter, the development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion is so rapid as to either check or entirely suppress the 
action of undesirable bacteria that may be present in the 
cream. 

part ii. — the; control op the; ripening process. 

In Part I an attempt was made to convey some idea 
as to our present theory and methods of cream ripening. 
We learned that the highly desirable flavor and aroma 
of butter are produced by the development of the lactic 
fermentation. In the following discussion we shall take 
up the means of controlling this fermentation and treat 
of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
will include: I. The time the starter should be added to 
the cream ; 2. The amount of starter to be added ; 3. The 
ripening temperature; 4. Time in ripening; 5. Agitation 
of cream during ripening; 6. Means of controlling tem- 
perature. 

1. The value of a starter in cream ripening has already 
been made evident in the discussion of the theory of cream 
ripening. To secure the maximum effect of a starter it 
should be added to the cream vat soon after the separation 



BUTTERMAKIXG 245 

of the milk has begun but not until the cream has reached 
a temperature of 70 ° F. The cream thus coming in con- 
tact with the starter as it leaves the separator insures a 
vigorous development of the starter germs, so that by the 
time the separation is completed, the starter fermentation 
is almost certain to predominate, especially when a large 
amount of starter is used. 

2. The maximum amount of starter that may be con- 
sistently used is one pound to two pounds of cream. A 
larger amount than this would be liable to result in too 
thin a cream. Experience teaches us that the maxi- 
mum richness of cream permissible in clean skimming 
under average conditions is 50%. Adding one pound of 
starter to two pounds of such cream would give us 
^33 1-3 % cream, the ideal richness for churning. But 
this amount of starter is rarely permissible on account 
of the poor facilities for controlling the temperature of 
the cream. 

3. Since the lactic acid bacteria develop best at a 
temperature of 90 to 98 F. it would seem desirable to 
ripen cream at these temperatures. But this is not 
practicable because of the unfavorable effect of high tem- 
peratures on the body of the cream and the butter. Good 
butter can be produced, however, under a wide range of 
ripening temperatures. The limits may be placed at 60 ° 
and 8o°. Temperatures below 6o° are too unfavorable 
for the development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any 
check upon the growth of these germs increases the 
chances for the development of other kinds of bacteria. 
But it may be added that when cream has reached an 
acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
temperature between 55 ° and 60 ° with good results. In 
general practice a temperature between 60 ° and 70 gives 



246 MARKET DAIRYING 

the best results. This means that the main porti©n of the 
ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
always finished at temperatures lower than this. 

4. As a rule quick ripening gives better results than 
slow. The reason for this is evident. Quick ripening 
means a rapid development of the lactic fermentation and, 
therefore, a relatively slow development of other fer- 
mentations. Practical experience shows us that the 
growth of the undesirable germs is slow in proportion 
as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, when we 
attempt to ripen cream at 55 ° F., a temperature unfavor- 
able for the growth of the lactic acid bacteria, a 
more or less bitter flavor is always the result. This is 
so because the bitter germs develop better at low tempera- 
tures than the lactic acid bacteria. 

The main portion of the ripening should be done in 
about six hours. After this the temperature should be 
gradually reduced to a point at which the cream will not 
overripen before churning. 

5. It is very essential in cream ripening to agitate the 
cream frequently to insure uniform ripening. When 
cream remains undisturbed for some time the fat rises 
in the same way that it does in milk, though in a less 
marked degree. The result is that the upper layers 
are richer than the lower and will sour less rapidly, since 
the action of the lactic acid- germs is greater in thin than 
in rich cream. 

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear 
coarse and curdy when poured from a dipper. The im- 
portance of stirring frequently during ripening should 
therefore not be underestimated. 

6. The subject of cream cooling is a very important 



BUTTBRMAKING '247 

one and will be discussed under the head of cream 
ripeners. 

CREAM RIPENERS. 

During the summer months much butter of inferior 
quality is made by overripening the cream and churning 
at too high a temperature. This is due chiefly to a lack 
of proper cooling facilities. With the open cream vats 
the control of temperature is a difficult thing. For- 
tunately these vats have been largely replaced by the more 
modern cream ripeners. These ripeners possess two 
important advantages over the open vats, namely: first, 
they permit a more rapid cooling by agitating the cream 
while cooling ; second, they maintain a more uniform tem- 
perature because of tight fitting covers and better all 
round construction. 

There are a number of different makes of ripeners on 
the market that are giving good satisfaction. 

Since some of these ripeners are so constructed as to 
render the addition of ice to the water in them impossible, 
they can not therefore be considered complete without 
an ice water attachment. In Fig. 53 an ice water tank 
may be seen attached to the ripener. 

Tank A contains ice water which is kept circulating 
through the ripener by means of pump B. By using the 
water over and over again, only a very small quantity 
of ice is required in cooling cream to the desired tempera- 
ture. When the great cooling power of ice is once fully 
understood it is easy to see what a great amount of 
cooling a small quantity of ice will do. One pound of 
ice in melting will give out 142 times as much cold as 
one pound of water raised from 32 to 33 ° F. In other 



248 



MARKET DAIRYING 



words, the cooling power of ice is 142 times as great as 
that of water. 

With uniced water, a low temperature is not possible. 
On warm days the ripener may be run during the greater 




Fig. 53.— Showing method of circulating ice water through ripener. 



part of the day without reducing the temperature below 
56 F., and this too when the water is pumped directly 
from the well into the ripener. It is rarely possible to 
obtain a lower temperature than this with water that has 
a temperature of 51 ° to 52 ° F. as it enters the ripener. 

When we compare the quick cooling with iced water 
and the slow and inadequate cooling with uniced water, 
it is easily seen that the saving in fuel and wear and 
tear of machinery will more than cover the cost of the 
ice. Moreover, quick cooling has a very important ad- 
vantage in cream ripening. It permits the use of a large 
amount of starter which is not possible where good cool- 
ing facilities are not at hand. Using iced water makes 
it possible to have cream with the same degree of acidity 
365 days in the year, and it is believed that the general 



BUTTERMAKING 249 

use of the improved cream ripeners and ice water attach- 
ments will result in a great improvement in both the 
quality and uniformity of butter and do away with the 
dangerous practice of adding ice directly to the cream. 

CHURNING. 

Under the physical properties of butter fat it was 
mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,- 
000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
layer of casein that surrounds them. 

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
which we call- churning. In the churning of cream this 
process of coalescing continues until the fat globules 
have united into masses visible in the churn as butter 
granules. 

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 

There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
be enumerated as follows: 



250 MARKET DAIRYING 

i. Temperature. 

2. Character of butter fat. 

3. Acidity -of cream. 

4. Richness of cream. 

5. Amount of cream in churn. 

6. Speed of churn. 

7. Abnormal fermentations. 

1. Temperature. To have the microscopic globules 
unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft- 
ness or fluidity which is greater the higher the tempera- 
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best results 
the temperature must be such as to churn the cream iri 
from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought about 
in different creams at quite different temperatures. 

The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 

Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
enters the churn with a richness of 30 to 35 per cent 
and an acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should 
be such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty- 
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 
and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 
handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
termilk can then be easily removed so that when a plug 
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
on it will be perfectly clear. 

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
cream from different sources and at different times have 
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 



BUTTBRMAKIN.G 251 

This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
will of course have a high melting point. Such fat may be 
quite hard at a temperature of 6o° while a butter fat 
of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at 
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
chapter on milk. 

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat 
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
higher churning temperature than sweet which is of great 
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
churning temperatures. 

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
that the closer the fat globules are together the more 
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together 
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 
The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 

The ideal richness lies between 30% and 35%. A 
cream much richer than this will stick to the sides of the 
churn which reduces the amount of concussion. The addi- 
tion of water to the churn will overcome this stickiness 
and cause the butter to come in a reasonable length of 



252 MARKET DAIRYING 

time. It is better, however, to avoid an excessive richness 
when an exhaustive churning is to be expected. 

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick- 
est churning is secured when the churn is one-third full. 
With more or less cream than this the amount of concus- 
sion is reduced and the length of time in churning cor- 
respondingly increased. 

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the churn should 
be such as to produce the greatest possible agitation or 
concussion of the cream. Too high or too low a speed 
reduces the amount of concussion. The proper speed for 
each particular churn must be determined by experiment. 

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy or ropy fer- 
mentation sometimes causes trouble in churning by ren- 
dering the cream excessively viscous. Cream from single 
herds may become so viscous as to render churning im- 
possible. At creameries where milk is received from many 
herds very little trouble is experienced from these fer- 
mentations. 

CHURNS. 

A churn is a machine in which the cream is made 
to slide or drop, or is in some way agitated to bring about 
the union of the fat globules, which changes the liquid fat 
into a solid. For many years the factory churns had 
assumed the form of a box or barrel free from any inside 
fixtures. Such churns were revolved by power and did 
very satisfactory work. But it was necessary to transfer 
the butter, after it was churned, to a worker upon which 
it was worked. 

This transfer from one piece of apparatus to another 
was obviated by the invention of "combined" churns and 



BUTTBRMAKING 253 

workers placed upon the market about two decades ago. 
These are provided with rollers inside, which remain 
stationary during churning, but can be made to revolve 
when it is desired to work the butter. 

The combined churns have to a great extent replaced 
the old box and barrel styles because of the many advan- 
tages they possess over the latter. The principal advan- 
tages may be stated as follows : 

1. They occupy less space. 

2. Require less belting and fewer pulleys. 

3. The churn can be kept closed while working which 
keeps the warm air and flies out during the summer. 

4. The butter can be made with considerably less 
labor. 

A few disadvantages might be mentioned such as the 
greater original cost and the greater difficulty of cleaning 
and salting. But with proper care the butter may be 
evenly salted and the churns kept clean. 

For small dairymen there are no better churns than 
the barrel • churns. They are simple, cheap, and answer 
every requirement for a satisfactory churning of cream, 
but dairymen who have 50 or more cows will find the 
dairy size combined churn and worker an advantage. 
What dairymen should strictly avoid in the way of churns 
is the so-called one-minute churns and other rapid churn- 
ing devices. 

CHURNING OPERATIONS. 

Preparing the Churn. Before adding the cream, the 
churn should be scalded with hot water and then 
thoroughly rinsed with cold water. This will "freshen" 



254 MARKET DAIRYING 

the churn and fill the pores of the wood with water so 
that the cream and butter will not stick. 

Straining Cream. All cream should be carefully 
strained into the churn. This removes the possibility of 
white specks in butter which usually consist of curd or 
dried particles of cream. 

Adding the Coflor. The amount of color to be added 
depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year, 
and the market demands. 

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 

During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
ing on dry feed. 

Different markets demand different shades of color. 
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
to which it is shipped. 

In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
the color will also be uniform throughout. 

Kinds of Color. There are two classes of butter color 
found upon the market. One is a vegetable color having 
its origin in the annatta and other plants, the other is a 
mineral color, a product of coal tar. Both are entirely 
satisfactory so far as they impart to butter a desirable 
color. But from a sanitary standpoint the vegetable color 



BUTTERMAKING 255 

seems to be preferred and this is the color now used in 
creameries. 

Gas' in Churn. During the first five minutes of churn- 
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure 
according to Babcock "is chiefly due to the air within 
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
from the cream. ,, 

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
granules have reached the right size, cold water should 
be added to the churn to cause the butter to float. Salt 
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off. 

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
water is used as there was cream is usually sufficient. 
When butter churns very soft two washings may be 
advantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, how- 
ever, as it removes the delicate flavor of the butter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
conducted at various experiment stations have shown 
that impure water seriously affects the flavor of butter. 
When the water is not perfectly pure it should be filtered 
or pasteurized. 

SALTING. 

It is needless to say that nothing but the best grades 
of salt should be used in butter. This means salt readily 



256 MARKET DAIRYING 

soluble in water and free from impurities. If there is 
much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid appear- 
ance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumbler 
of clear water. 

Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be 
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon 
market demands. Some markets like Boston require much 
salt in butter while some buyers in the New York market 
require scarcely any. The butter maker must cater to the 
markets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he 
does with regard to color. 

The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
lost than under others. 

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent upon : 

1. Amount of drainage before salting. 

2. Fineness of butter granules. 

3. Amount of butter in churn. 

1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
under these conditions. 

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 



BUT TERM A KING 257 

film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuffi- 
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. 

Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
butter made in the combined churns comes close to one 
and a half ounces per pound of butter. But the rate de- 
manded by different commission men may vary from no 
salt to two and a half ounces per pound of butter. 

With the combined churns great care must be exercised 
to get the salt evenly distributed from one end of the 
churn to the other as it can not redistribute itself in the 
working. 

Brine Salting. This consists in dissolving the salt in 
water and adding it to the butter in the form of a brine. 
This will usually insure an even distribution with less 
working since the salt is already dissolved. Where butter 
containing a high percentage of salt is demanded the 
method of brine salting is not practical, because it limits 
the amount that can be incorporated in butter. 

Where there is difficulty in securing an even distribu- 
tion of the salt without excessive working, an oversatu- 
rated brine may be used to advantage. Salt added to 
butter in this form very quickly dissolves and a butter 
with any degree of salt is possible. 

But it is believed that where butter is drained little and 
a somewhat higher rate of salt is used, dry salting will 
never require overworking and will insure greater uni- 
formity than is possible with brine salting. 

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and 



258 MARKET DAIRYING 

materially increases its keeping quality. Very high salt- 
ing, however, has a tendency to detract from the fine 
delicate aroma of butter while at the same time it tends 
to cover up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter 
maker will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his 
butter rather high. 

Salt an Absorbent. Salt very readily absorbs odors 
and must therefore be kept in clean, dry places where the 
air is pure. Too frequently it is stored in musty, damp 
store rooms where it will not only lump, but become 
impregnated with bad odors which seriously impair the 
quality of the butter. 

WORKING BUTTER. 

The chief object in working butter is to evenly incor- 
porate the salt. Working also assists in expelling 
moisture. 

After the wash water has sufficiently drained away, the 
salt is carefully distributed over the butter and the churn 
revolved a few times with the rollers stationary. This 
will aid in mixing the salt and butter. The rollers are 
then set in gear and the butter worked until the salt has 
been evenly distributed. To work butter twice reduces 
the water content, but is a safeguard against mottles. 

How Much to Work. Butter is worked enough when 
the salt has been evenly distributed. Just when this point 
has been reached can not always be told from the appear- 
ance of the butter immediately after working. But after 
four or six hours standing the appearance of white 
Streaks or mottles indicates that the butter has not been 
sufficiently worked. The rule to follow is to work the 
butter just enough to prevent the appearance of mottles 



BUTTERMAKING 



259 



after standing about six hours. Just how much working 
this requires every butter maker must determine for him- 
self, by experiment, for the reason that there are a number 
of conditions that influence the length of time that butter 
needs to be worked in a combined churn. These condi- 
tions are : 

i. Amount of butter in the churn. 

2. Temperature of the butter. 

3. Time between workings. 

4. Size of granules. 

5. Solubility of salt. 

1. When there is a moderately large amount of butter 
in the churn the working can be accomplished with fewer 
revolutions than with a small amount. Satisfactory work- 
ing can not be secured, however, when the capacity of the 
churn is overtaxed. 

2. Hard, cold butter is difficult to work because the 
particles will not knead together properly. 

3. A moderately long time between workings allows 
the salt to dissolve and diffuse through the butter and 
hence reduces the amount of working. 

4. Coarse or overchurned butter needs a great deal 
of working because of the greater difficulty of distribu- 
ting the salt. 

5. A salt that does not readily dissolve requires exces- 
sive working and is therefore productive of overworked 
butter. With such salt the brine method of salting is 
undoubtedly preferable. 



260 MARKET DAIRYING 

DIFFICULT CHURNING. 

The causes of trouble in churning may be enumerated 
as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) low temperature, (3) 
sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of cream, (5) churn too 
full, (6) too high or too low speed of churn, (7) colos- 
trum milk, (8) advanced period of lactation, and (9) ab- 
normally rich cream. 

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of 
the cream. When caused v by these conditions foaming 
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
two churnings made instead of one. 

CLEANING CHURNS. 

After the butter has been removed, the churn should be 
washed, first with moderately hot water, next with boiling 
hot water containing a little alkali, and finally with hot 
water. If the final rinsing is done with cold water the 
churn dries too slowly, which is apt to give it a musty 
smell. 

This daily washing should be supplemented once a week 
with a washing with lime water, which is prepared as 
follows : Gradually slake half a bushel of freshly burned 
lime by adding water to it at short intervals until about 
150 pounds of water has been added. Stir the mixture 
once every half hour for several hours, after which allow 
it to remain undisturbed for about ten hours. This 
permits the undissolved material to settle. The clear 
liquid is now poured off and added to the churn, which is 



BUTTERMAKING 



261 



slowly revolved for at least half an hour so that the lime 
water may thoroughly penetrate the pores of the wood. 
Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre- 
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the 
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
not so treated. 

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned 
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
alkali. 

Churning Cream Immediately After Adding the 
Starter. Where much hand separator cream is handled, 
it is usually received with varying amounts of acid, rang- 
ing in some cases from 0.15% to 0.8%. When the 
average acidity of the cream is such that when treated 
with a large amount of starter the mixture will show 
0.5% acid or more, the cream should be churned as soon 
as the proper churning temperature can be secured. If, 
for example, the vat of cream shows 0.4% acid and the 
starter 0.7%, then one part of starter to two parts of 
cream would give an average acidity of 0.5%, the right 
amount for churning cream of moderate richness. 

Pumping Cream into the Churn. Cream may be 
forced into the churn either by means of air pumps, 
sanitary milk and cream pumps, or with pumps working 
on the principle of an ordinary well pump. 

The air pumps require air-tight cream ripeners for 
their successful operation. The air is pumped into the 
ripener to create sufficient pressure to force the cream 
into the churn. Forcing air into the ripener has the 
advantage of permitting the cream to be conducted to 
the churn through an open spout. 

Pumps worked with a handle have the advantage of 



262 



MARKET DAIRYING 



enabling the buttermaker to put his cream into the churn 
in the morning before there is sufficient steam pressure to 
work pumps with the engine. 

Fig. 54 shows a very satisfactory cream pump which 




Fig. 54.— Cream pump. 

can be made by any tinner. It simply consists of a heavy 
tin cylinder four inches in diameter which is provided with 
two brass valves having two inch openings. This pump is 
attached to the cream ripener and the cream pumped by 
hand into the churn through an open spout. Both valves 
can be removed so that there is not the slightest difficulty 
in cleaning the pump. Such a pump will readily pump 25 
gallons of cream per minute. 



CHAPTER XXXIL 

MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 
PACKING BUTTER. 

Butter is usually in the best condition for packing 
immediately after it has been worked. It can then be 
packed solidly into the packages without the vigorous 
ramming necessary when the butter becomes too cold. 
When allowed to stand in the churn some time after work- 
ing during the warm summer days, the butter will usually 
get too soft for satisfactory packing. 

There is a great variety of packages in which butter 
may be packed for the markets. The bulk of the butter 
for home trade is packed in ash and spruce tubs, the 
former holding 20, 30, and 60 pounds, while the latter 
are made in 10, 20, 30, and 50 pound sizes. 

Before adding the butter, the tubs must be thoroughly 
scrubbed inside and outside, the hoops carefully set, and 
then soaked in hot water for about half an hour. After 
this they are steamed for three minutes and then allowed 
to soak in cold water not less than four hours. The sides 
and bottom of the tubs are next lined with parchment 
paper which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty- 
four hours. See "paraffining tubs," page 265. 

The wet liners are easily placed in the tubs by allowing 
them to project an inch and turning this over the edge. 

The tubs are now weighed and the butter packed into 
263 



264 MARKET DAIRYING 

them directly from the churn, adding about five pounds 
at a time and firmly packing it with a wooden packer made 
for this purpose. The butter should be packed solid so 
that when stripped of its package on the retailer's counter 
no open spaces will appear in it. 

When ash tubs are used they are packed brim full 
and trimmed off level with the tub by running a string 
across the top. The tubs are then weighed and the weights 
marked on the outside, allowing not less than half 
a pound for shrinkage for a sixty pound tub. A cheese 
cloth circle is next placed over the top and an oversatu- 
rated brine is pasted upon this. After careful cleaning 
place the covers on the tubs and fasten them with not 
less than three butter tub fasteners. 

With spruce tubs the method of packing is the same 
with the exception that most markets require an even 
number of pounds in a tub, as 30 or 50 pounds. The tubs 
are, therefore, trimmed down till the required weight, plus 
half a pound for shrinkage, is reached. Some markets 
do not require the spruce tubs to be lined but it is always 
better to do so. 

Prints. Considerable quantities of butter made in 
creameries are put up in one pound oblong blocks called 
prints. The prints are carefully wrapped in parchment 
paper which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty- 
four hours, and then packed in cheap wood boxes which 
usually hold about fifty of them. These boxes should be 
held not less than one day in a refrigerator before they 
are shipped. Print butter is growing in popularity. 

Other packages. There are various other packages in 
which butter is packed, such as five pound crocks, gem 



MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE 265 

fibre paper boxes lined with parchment and holding 2, 3, 
4, 5, and 10 pounds, and the wooden bail boxes holding 
from 5 to 10 pounds. Most of these packages are used 
for local trade. 

foreign Trade Packages. For export trade butter is 
preferably packed in cubical spruce boxes lined with 
paraffin and holding 56 pounds. These boxes are pre- 
pared by rinsing them with cold brine and then lining 
with parchment paper (double thickness at top and bot- 
tom) which has been soaked in brine. The boxes are 
now weighed and carefully packed, after which they are 
trimmed down to a weight of 57 pounds, which allows 
one pound for shrinkage. Finish the packing by placing 
a double thickness of parchment paper over the top and 
upon this oversaturated brine. 

Butter shipped to tropical countries is packed in tin 
cans which are hermetically sealed. 

Paraffining Butter Packages. During recent years 
buttermakers and butter dealers have suffered consider- 
able losses from moldy butter caused by the growth of 
mold on the liners and on the inside of the tubs. These 
losses can easily be avoided by resorting to the proper 
methods of destroying the mold. Rogers of the United 
States Department of Agriculture has shown that this 
trouble can be prevented with certainty by coating the 
inside of the tub with a layer of paraffin. He says: 
"With paraffining not only are the molds and their spores 
already on the tub prevented from growing but 
the wood is covered with a surface from which molds 



266 MARKET DAIRYING 

can not get nourishment. The wood is made impervious 
to water, and the space between the tub and the liner 
remains filled with water, so that the molds which may 
be on the liner can not get the supply of air necessary 
to their growth." He has also shown that loss from 
shrinkage is largely prevented in this way. 

Testimonials from buttermakers indicate that the prac- 
tice of paraffining tubs is giving good satisfaction and 
many have already adopted it as a permanent feature in 
creamery work. 

To secure the best results from the paraffin, it should 
be applied at a temperature of about 240 F., immediately 
after steaming the tub. The steaming may or may not 
be preceded by soaking; under present conditions, how- 
ever, soaking is recommended, if for no other reason than 
to give tubs their full weight. 'Butter dealers are 
accustomed to handle soaked tubs and where they are 
not soaked, the creamery is liable to lose an amount of 
butter equal to the difference between the weights of the 
soaked and unsoaked tubs. 

Special machines are now upon the market for paraf- 
fining tubs. The paraffin may, however, be applied by 
pouring the same into the tub and rotating the latter until 
it is entirely coated. A brush may also be used for this 
purpose. Those who contemplate paraffining should in- 
vestigate' the merits of the machines now upon the market. 

Printing Cold Butter i Until recently the common 
practice has been to print butter directly from 
the churn. With the advent of the "cold" butter 
printers or cutters, much butter is being printed 
outside the creameries, and the latter are also 
adopting the practice of cooling the butter before 
printing. Cold butter makes better looking prints, 



MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE 267 

injures the butter less, causes less water to be lost, facili- 
tates the wrapping, and makes it easier to pack the butter. 
The butter is preferably packed directly from the churn 
into square boxes of a size to fit the printer. Where butter 
is printed from tubs, there is too much butter left in 
irregular pieces, which are hard to repack and must be 
disposed of in bulk. 

MARKETING CREAMERY BUTTER. 

The producer of any commodity is always confronted 
with the problem of finding the best markets for his 
product. Indeed his success is measured more or less by 
his ability in handling this end of the business. 

Buttermakers lose thousands and thousands of dollars 
every year because they do not fully understand how to 
manage the sale of their product. They fall into the 
clutches of men without credit or credentials who offer 
big prices but no returns. Swindlers are always on the 
lookout for victims and every year many buttermakers 
are entrapped by them. To the one who is just beginning 
to seek a market for his butter the following course of 
procedure is recommended. 

i. Find the names of three or more leading reputable 
butter firms in the leading butter markets by inquiring of 
men from whom trustworthy information may be ex- 
pected. 

2. Divide a day's standard make among these butter 
firms and instruct each to send you statement as to the 
price they can give you net (f. o. b.) at your station for 
regular shipments, the price to be based on quotations of 
some leading market. Inform them further that you are 
ready and willing to comply with their demands as to 
color, package, and salt, in future shipments. 



268 MARKET DAIRYING 

3. Ship your butter to the firm that offers you the best 
price, but do not deal with this firm exclusively. A tub 
should occasionally be sent to a new and reliable firm 
with a view to securing better prices. 

4. Remember, however, that it requires time to estab- 
lish a good trade for butter. Frequent changes from one 
firm to another are therefore undesirable. 

5. Do not sell butter on commission, but ask for prices 
f. o. b. your station, based on some market quotation like 
New York, Chicago or Elgin. 

6. Demand that payment shall be made for each ship- 
ment of butter within two weeks after it is sent out. 

7. Never send a firm a third shipment until the first 
has been paid for. 

8. Butter that is not up to the standard should be 
marked and the firm properly instructed regarding its 
disposition. An attempt to crowd in an inferior ship- 
ment may cost you your regular trade. 

9. Do not feel hurt when criticisms come regarding 
defects in your butter but seek to overcome them. 

10. Always allow one-half pound of butter for shrink- 
age on fifty and sixty pound tubs. If this allowance proves 
inadequate it indicates that the tubs have not been properly 
soaked or that the "house" is cutting you on weights. 

11. Never contract butter for more than a year at a 
time. 

How to Sell to Commission Houses. A common 
mistake in marketing butter is to sell it at prices based 
upon the score of the butter. This places the butter- 
maker at the mercy of the commission man who may, or 
may not, give an honest score. If he is not strictly 
honest he may easily place butter that would 
naturally grade as extras in the class of firsts, and butter 



MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE 269 

that would naturally grade as firsts in the class of seconds. 

One of the best methods of selling butter to commis- 
sion houses is as follows: Furnish the buyer enough 
samples of butter to give him a good idea as to the aver- 
age quality of the butter produced by the creamery. An 
agreement can then be made as to the price the creamery 
shall receive for regular shipments, the price to be based 
upon some standard market quotation. If, for example, 
the buyer agrees that the quality of the butter merits one- 
half cent above Elgin, and the seller is satisfied with this 
price, future shipments shall be paid for at the rate of 
one-half cent above Elgin until such time as either party 
may become dissatisfied with the original agreement. If 
the butter maker feels that he is receiving a good price 
for his butter, he will do his best to maintain the standard 
of his product. 

Selling to Retailers and Wholesalers. Wherever pos- 
sible creameries should try to sell their butter direct to 
retailers and wholesale houses and in this way save the 
commission man's profits. This method of marketing, of 
course, necessitates visiting retailers and wholesalers in 
nearby cities, but this trouble will be more than compen- 
sated for by bringing the buttermaker in closer touch 
with the markets and with general market requirements. 

Branding Butter. As with hundreds of other com- 
modities, the branding of good butter is absolutely essen- 
tial in creating a strong demand for it. A high quality 
butter without a distinguishing mark is bound to sell at 
a disadvantage because consumers are not willing to pay 
high prices for products about whose quality they have 
no positive assurance. The brand advertises the butter 
and increases the demand for it, and an increased demand 
is always followed by better prices. 



270 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Floor plan of combined gathered cream and whole milk creamery. 



MARKETING BUTTER AXD CHEESE 



271 



MARKETING DAIRY BUTTER. 



For fancy trade, one-pound prints wrapped in parch- 
ment paper are the most popular. These prints are 
made with a small hand printer which should 
have the dairyman's monogram cut into it. The im- 
print of the monogram in the butter will serve as a 
guarantee of its genuineness. It is also desirable to 

have some neat letter- 
ing on the parchment 
wrapper, such, for ex- 
ample, as Fancy Dairy 
Butter, Cold Spring- 
Dairy Butter, Golden 
Jersey Butter, etc. 
Prints must be kept 
cold to preserve their 
attractive rectangular 
appearance. 

The best prices for 
butter are realized by 
selling it direct to the 
consumer. With milk dealers who retail milk and cream, 
this method of marketing not only yields the best prices, 
but is also the most convenient, because the butter can be 
disposed of at the same time as the milk and cream. 

A covered box like that shown in Fig. 55 is best 
adapted for carrying print butter to market. Ice may be 
packed in the box with the butter during warm weather. 
With the small butter producer the greatest trouble is 
finding a suitable market for his product. It is custom- 
ary with most of these producers to sell their butter to 
the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimi- 




Fig. 55.— Print Butter Box. 



272 MARKET DAIRYING 

nation in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor 
selling for practically the same price. No producer of 
good butter can afford to market his butter in the coun- 
try stores. Those who have made farm butter making a 
success have invariably catered to private trade, or have 
sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great 
deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities 
at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12 
or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, pri- 
vate customers who are willing to pay for a good product, 
and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to 
reach them by rail. 



MARKETING CHEESE. 

Cheddar Cheese. Most of the cheese is sold from 
the factory when from three to ten days old, Flats are 
shipped either single or two in a box ; in the former case 
they are known as "singles," in the latter as "twins." 
Young Americas and long horns are usually shipped 
four in a box. * 

One or two scale boards should be placed in the bot- 
tom of the box and on top of the cheese to protect the 
surface of the cheese. In the case of "twins," two 
scale boards should also be placed between the two cheese. 
The cheese boxes are cut down to about one-eighth of 
an inch below the top of the cheese. This enables the 
cover to rest securely on the cheese. About one-half 
pound overweight should be allowed on each box, the 
same as on butter tubs. The weight of the cheese must 
be plainly marked on the side of the box with a blue 
pencil or stencil. 



MARKETING BUTTER AND CHEESE 273 

Cheese as a rule is sold on dairy boards of trade. In 
Wisconsin, most of the cheese is sold under the "call 
board" system, which is virtually equivalent to auction- 
ing off the cheese to the highest bidder. All the 
cheese makers and cheese buyers belonging to a particu- 
lar board meet as a rule once a week. At this time eacn 
cheese maker's offering of cheese is written on a black 
board, after which the buyers bid on the entries so made. 
The cheese maker usually sells to the highest bidder. 

Soft and Fancy Cheese. Cheese of a perishable na- 
ture, such as cottage, cream, club, pimento and 
Neufchatel, should be sold to the consumer as direct as 
possible. Milk dealers are in the best position to supply 
this cheese. Many are already supplying cheese of this 
kind to their customers at considerable profit. See chap- 
ters XV and XXL 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 



BUTTER OVERRUN. 



In a well conducted creamery the total pounds of but- 
ter made is always greater than the total pounds oi 
butter fat received; the difference is called the overrun. 
Thus, if during a certain time a creamery makes 2,400 
pounds of butter from 2,000 pounds of butter fat, the 
overrun equals 2,400 less 2,000, or 400 pounds. The 
per cent of overrun is found by dividing the number of 
pounds of overrun by the total pounds of butter fat re- 
ceived and multiplying the quotient by 100. Putting this 
in the form of a formula, we have : 

Per cent ) pounds of overrun 



h 



X 100 



Overrun [ total poun( | s of butter fat 
Where 2,000 pounds of butter fat will make 2,400 
pounds of butter, the overrun will therefore equal : 

X 100, or 20%. 

2000 

A mistake not uncommonly made in calculating the 
per cent overrun is to divide the pounds of overrun by 
the total pounds of butter, instead of the total pounds of 
butter fat. 

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE OVERRUN. 

It is well known that the overrun varies considerably 
at different creameries as well as at the same creamery. 

274 






BUTTER OVERRUN 275 

The amount of overrun is directly dependent upon the 
following factors: 

1. Efficiency of skimming and churning. 

2. Composition of the butter. 

3. Richness of milk and cream. 

4. Mechanical losses. 

5. Correct reading of tests. 

Efficiency of Skimming and Churning. It is evi- 
dent that the more fat there is lost in skimming and 
churning the lower will be the overrun. To obtain a 
maximum overrun, the loss of fat as shown by the Bab- 
cock test should not exceed 0.05 per cent for skim-milk 
and 0.15 per cent for buttermilk. 

In this connection it should be stated that during the 
summer season it is not at all uncommon to find butter- 
milk testing from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, largely a result of 
employing too high a churning temperature. 

Composition of the Butter. Besides butter fat, butter 
contains water, curd and salt, and, other conditions the 
same, the greater the amount of non-fatty matter in 
butter the greater the overrun. Water, being present in 
large quantity and subject to considerable variation, very 
appreciably affects the percentage of overrun. There has 
been a tendency among creameries the past few years 
to manipulate butter so as to increase its normal water 
content and thereby increase the overrun. 

The water in butter easily fluctuates between 10 and 
15 per cent, and a good overrun can be obtained by keep- 
ing it within the limits of 13 and 14 per cent. 

Salt as a rule has little influence on the per cent of 
overrun because under normal conditions an increase in 



276 MARKET DAIRYING 

the amount of salt usually results in a decrease in the 
amount of water. Of course, where special methods of 
manipulating the water content are resorted to, it is 
possible to increase the overrun by increasing the amount 
of salt. 

Curd is present in butter in very small quantities, and 
its influence on the overrun is very slight. 

Richness of Milk and Cream. The test of skim-milk 
is practically independent of the richness of the milk — 
that is, other conditions the same, skim-milk from 2.5%' 
milk will test the same as that from 5 per cent milk. But 
since it takes twice as much 2.5 per cent milk to obtain 
100 pounds of butter fat as is required with 5 per cent 
milk, it follows that the loss of fat in the skim-milk will 
be twice as great with the poorer milk. 

Assuming a loss of 0.05 per cent fat in the skim-milk, 
the loss of fat in the amount of milk needed to yield 100 
pounds of butter fat is one pound greater for the poorer 
milk. The extra pound of fat thus lost would have made 
approximately 1.18 pounds of butter, so that the overrun 
from a 5 per cent milk may be expected to be approxi- 
mately 1. 1 8 per cent greater than that from milk testing 
2.5 per cent. 

Rich cream yields a higher overrun than poor cream 
because of the smaller loss of fat in the buttermilk. That 
is, there is less buttermilk from rich cream than poor 
cream, and, since the per cent of butter fat in the butter- 
milk will be about the same in both cases, it follows that 
the loss will be greater from the poor cream, which 
yields the greater amount of buttermilk. 

Assuming a loss of 0.2 per cent of fat in the butter- 
milk, 100 pounds of butter fat in 35 per cent cream will 



BUTTER OVERRUN 277 

yield about one-half pound more of butter than the same 
amount of fat in a 20 per cent cream ; in other words, the 
overrun from a 35 per cent cream will be one-half per 
cent greater than that from a 20 per cent cream. 

Mechanical Losses. By mechanical losses is meant 
the small losses of cream remaining in cans, vats, strain- 
ers, etc., and the butter particles remaining in the churns 
and on the packers, butter spades, etc. Where care is 
exercised in properly rinsing the cans and ripeners and 
in the handling of the butter, losses from this source will 
be rather slight. On the other hand, carelessness in 
these matters may result in heavy losses and in a material 
lowering of the overrun. 

Correct Reading of Tests. It is very evident that 
a little too high or a little too low a reading will mate- 
rially affect the overrun. If a cream whose actual test is 
30 per cent should be read only 29 per cent, the overrun 
will be abnormally increased by approximately 4.0 per 
cent. It is easy to make a mistake of one per cent in 
the reading of cream tests and, what is worse, many 
cream tests are purposely read too low so as to enable 
the creameryman to show a big overrun. It is to every 
creameryman's interest to read tests accurately, because 
inaccuracies are bound to be discovered sooner or later 
and may lead to the disruption of the creamery. 

Average Overrun. The overrun from whole milk 
averages 18%, that from cream 20%. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING. 



Ripening the Milk. As soon as the milk has been 
placed in the cheese vat, a test is made for acidity, pref- 
erably by means of acid tests such as are described in 
chapter IX. If less than 0.2% acid is present, starter 
should be added. Starter improves the flavor of cheese 
just as it improves the flavor of butter. One to one and 
one-half pounds of starter per 100 pounds milk is a 
fair allowance for average cheese factory milk. The 
starter should always be strained through cheese cloth 
before adding it to the milk. 

After the starter has been added, the milk should be 
heated to a temperature of 86° F. and allowed to ripen 
until 0.2 per cent acid is present. While holding the 
milk for acid development, it should be frequently stirred 
to keep the cream mixed with the milk. A temperature 
of 86° F. must be maintained during the ripening pro- 
cess. 

Adding Color and Rennet. When the milk shows 
0.2 per cent acid, color is added at the rate of about one 
ounce per thousand pounds of milk. The amount of 
color to use, however, depends upon market demands, 
some markets preferring no color at all. The color 
should be diluted with about four times its volume of 
water to aid in mixing it with the milk. Imperfect mix- 
ing results in mottled cheese. 

278 



CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING 279 

After the color is thoroughly incorporated, add ren- 
net extract at the rate of about three and one-half ounces 
per 1,000 pounds of milk. The rennet extract should be 
diluted with water to the extent of at least five times its 
own volume before adding it to the milk. After the 
rennet extract has been thoroughly stirred in, the milk 
should be allowed to stand undisturbed until sufficiently 
curdled to cut. The temperature at the time of adding 
the rennet should be 86° F. 

The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined 
by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a 
quick ripening cheese is wanted, add about 4 ounces per 
1,000 pounds of milk. If a slow ripening cheese is de- 
sired, add 2y 2 to 3 ounces per 1,000 pounds. 

While the milk is curdling it must be kept well cov- 
ered to keep the surface layer warm. 

Cutting the Curd. To determine when the curd is 
ready to cut insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd 
with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of 
the break and parallel to, and half an inch below, the 
surface. If the whey in the break is clear, the curd is 
ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed 
far enough. The cutting is done as follows: First cut 
the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife; 
next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the 
perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about three- 
eighths of an inch on a side. 

Warming and Stirring the Curd. Immediately after 
cutting, stir the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent 
the particles from matting together. Run the palm of 
the hand along the sides and bottom of the vat to remove 
any adhering curd. After 10 minutes stirring, gradually 
apply heat and raise the temperature to between 98 and 



280 MARKET DAIRYING 

ioo° F. in about 30 to 45 minutes. After this temper- 
ature has been reached, the curd may be stirred at inter- 
vals of 10 minutes until ready to remove the whey. It 
is important to keep the temperature close to ioo° F. 

Drawing Off the Whey. When a bunch of curd is 
pressed between the two hands and on relieving the pres- 
sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for 
the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached, 
the whey should show 0,17 to 0.18 per cent acid. When 
the milk is set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firm- 
ness and amount of acid indicated above are reached in 
two and one-half to three hours after adding the rennet 
extract. 

Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a 
siphon. Place perforated wooden racks, about two inches 
high, at one end of the vat and cover them with a piece 
of muslin or French crash. Scoop the curd upon the racks, 
which have the advantage of draining the curd quickly 
and also permits the use of hot water under the curd to 
assist in keeping the temperature at 98 F., a tempera- 
ture which should be maintained up to within a short 
time of salting. 

Piling and Matting the Curd. As soon as removed 
from the whey, the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread 
about six inches deep upon the racks and then allowed 
to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about 
8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 min- 
utes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15 
minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep. 
Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the 
curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is 
ready to mill. During the entire matting process the 
curd should be kept at a temperature of 98 F. 



CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING 281 

Milling. When properly matted the curd is run 
through a cnrd mill, which will cut the curd into strips 
about the size of a ringer. This treatment makes possible 
a ready absorption of the salt by the curd. 

Salting. After milling the curd is stirred frequently 
until it becomes mellow and velvety to the touch, when it 
is ready to salt. At this time the whey exuding from the 
curd should show about one per cent acid. With 
normally working curds, salt can usually be added about 
one hour after milling. Tainted curds require more time. 

If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at the rate of 
2^4 pounds of salt per ioo pounds of curd. When a 
slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of 2^4 
pounds. Use only the best grade of salt, and have the 
curd at a temperature of about 90 F. at the time of 
salting. The salt must be evenly mixed with the curd to 
ensure uniformity of color and quality in the cheese. 

Molding and Pressing. When the curd has become 
soft and mellow, which usually requires from 20 to 30 
minutes, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds) which 
are prepared as follows: Place a piece of muslin in the 
bottom of the hoop and on top of this a cheese cloth 
circle somewhat less in diameter than the hoop. Now 
place the bandage on the bandager so that when the 
latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over the 
cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next put 
in the curd. This done, cover the curd with a piece of 
muslin and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure 
very gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure 
(about 20 lbs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30 
minutes' pressing. Shortly after full pressure has been 
applied, remove the follower, the muslin cloth and 
bandager. Turn the projecting bandage over onto the 



282 MARKET DAIRYING 

cheese. Next place a cloth circle over the top, replace 
the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure 
for about 12 hours. The cheese is now taken out of the 
hoop, any folds or irregularities in the bandage 
straightened out, and then washed off with hot water 
and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about ten 
hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop and 
put it into a suitable place for curing. Remove the mus- 
lin cloths but leave the cheese cloth circles on the cheese. 

Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the 
cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample 
ventilation. Keep the temperature of the curing room 
at 6o° F. or below. The curing or ripening process, 
which consists of the transformation of insoluble into 
soluble casein, requires from two to eight months, accord- 
ing to the amount of rennet extract and salt used, amount 
of moisture in the cheese and the temperature at which 
it is ripened. The higher the temperature and moisture, 
the quicker the cheese will ripen. During the first two 
weeks the cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and 
if any portion of it is not covered with cheese cloth, grease 
should be applied to prevent cracking. 

The Value of Low Curing Temperatures. A subject 
which deserves more attention than has heretofore been 
given it is the value of cold storage in connection with 
cheese factories. Many factories are already thus equip- 
ped and the general opinion of the owners of these factor- 
ies is that the advantages afforded return very good inter- 
est on the money invested. The chief advantages afforded 
by cold storage are less shrinkage and a better quality 
of cheese. 

Experiments have shown that with cheese weighing 
about 65 pounds, the shrinkage during the first week, 



CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING 283 

when the cheese is kept at 55 ° F., is 1.6 pounds per hun- 
dred pounds of cheese. At 8o° F. the shrinkage is 2.4 
pounds per hundred, an increase of 50 per cent. 

With small cheese weighing 9 pounds, the shrinkage 
is about 40 per cent greater than with cheese weighing 65 
pounds. Since the temperature in the majority of curing 
rooms averages about 8o° F. during July and August, a 
factory making cheese weighing 9 pounds and averaging 
600 pounds per day will effect a saving of 6.72 pounds by 
curing the cheese the first week at 55 ° F. instead of 
8o° F. At 14 cents per pound the saving amounts to 
94 cents a day. 

What is of still greater significance than the saving 
in shrinkage, is the general improvement in the quality 
of cheese cured at low temperature. Temperatures be- 
tween 50 and 6o° F. will produce very satisfactory re- 
sults. 

Paraffining Cheese. To prevent molding and ex- 
cessive loss of moisture in curing cheese in the average 
curing room, cheese should be paraffined about three 
days after it leaves the press or as soon as the rind has 
become thoroughly dry. The paraffining is done by im- 
mersing the cheese for about five seconds in paraffin hav- 
ing a temperature of at least 220 F., and 240 F. is 
better. 

GASSY MILK. 

Gassy milk causes cheesemakers a great deal of trou- 
ble, especially during the hot summer months. Gassy 
curds and floating curds have always been among the 
cheesemaker's greatest troubles. During hot weather the 
gas producing bacteria predominate over the other unde- 
sirable kinds and under certain conditions they predom- 



284 MARKET DAIRYING 

inate over the lactic acid kind. It is under the latter 
condition that the gassy curds result. 

Preventive Measures. The trouble from gas organ- 
isms can almost entirely be overcome by instructing the 
patrons to cool their milk thoroughly and by the use of 
a good lactic acid starter. The cooling of the milk holds 
the gas producing bacteria in check and will give the 
cheesemaker milk sweet enough to enable him to use a 
reasonable amount of starter. 

In many cheese factories, during warm weather, the 
milk arrives at the factory too ripe to permit the use of 
starter. Where this is the case a high quality cheese is 
hardly possible. If there is no trouble from gas organ- 
isms there are usually other taints present. 

The use of one pound of good starter to every ioo 
pounds of milk will almost entirely eliminate trouble from 
gas germs and will also eliminate taints that are likely to 
develop where no starter is added. Where the sweetness 
of the milk permits, it is desirable to use more starter 
but care must be taken not to overripen the milk with 
too much starter which might result in an acidy or sour 
cheese ; but at least one-half pound to the hundred pounds 
of milk should always be used. 

Handling Gassy Curds. A good starter is the best 
means of combating gas-producing bacteria. The latter 
cannot survive in the presence of a large number of lac- 
tic acid organisms. Every cheesemaker knows that gassy 
milk ripens slowly and this is so because the gas organ- 
isms seriously hamper the development of the acid bac- 
teria. It is for this reason that milk that is known to 
be gassy should be ripened further before adding the 
rennet than normal milk. Also more acid should be 
developed in the whey than with normal curds. 



CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING 285 

While the curd is matting on the racks, the tempera- 
ture should be kept close to 98 F. and this temperature 
should be maintained close up to salting. The curd 
after cutting should be kept well stirred and the salting 
delayed until the gas holes have thoroughly flattened or 
practically disappeared. At this stage the curd will be 
very mellow and greasy, a condition favoring a close tex- 
tured cheese from gassy milk. After salting the curd 
should also be kept well stirred and allowed to become 
mellow and velvety before going to press. 

Where curds show gas day after day a curd test should 
be made of each patron's milk to locate the source of 
trouble. Directions for making a curd test are given 
on page 191. 

HANDLING OVERRIPE MILK. 

When milk is overripe, set at a little higher tempera- 
ture, add a little more rennet, cut the curd a trifle softer 
than usual and cut finer. By cutting the curd twice as 
fine as usual it can be firmed up in practically one-half 
the usual time. Heat faster than usual. Curd that is 
cut fine cannot easily be injured by fast heating. In 
heating fast, however, greater care must be exercised in 
preventing the curd from getting lumpy. 

Heat the curd to a higher temperature than usual — 
up to 106 F. in badly overripe milk. Remove a portion 
of the whey as soon as possible; this materially checks 
the development of acid. Stir the curd constantly. If 
rather soft at dipping time, stir upon racks until firm. 
Do not develop more than the usual amount of acid in 
the whey. It is better to dip the curd soft rather than 
to hold it till firm and develop too much acid. 

If the curd is rather soft when placed on the racks 



286 



MARKET DAIRYING 



and the acid appears to develop fast, do not pack the 
curd deep but turn it frequently and keep the tem- 
perature close to 98 ° F\ Pouring clean, warm water over 
the curd right after it is placed on the racks, will ma- 
terially check the development of acid. 

Mill rather early and when the proper amount of acid 
has been reached, salt. If the curd is rather soft and 
moist at this time use an extra amount of salt and hold 
the curd longer than usual after salting. 



ORAINAGE OISPOSAL^JSEPTIC TANKS OR CCSS-POOL 



ICF HOUSE 



WHEY TANKS 



o 



CURING SHELVES 



COAL A 
WOOD 



BOILER ROOM 



I 00! 



I WASH 
WEIGH 

c 



WtIDH 

o 



J Jorricc 



Floor Plan of Cheese Factory. (From "Science and Practice of Cheese 
Making.") 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

CREAMERY AND FACTORY DIVIDENDS. 
CREAMERY DIVIDENDS. 

Milk and cream yield butter in proportion to their 
butter fat content. That is the reason why practically 
all milk and cream made into butter are now bought by 
the "Babcock test," that is, on the "butter fat basis." In 
discussing the method of paying for milk and cream, 
therefore, only the "butter fat basis" will be considered. 

The periodical payments made for milk and cream at 
creameries are known as creamery dividends. These pay- 
ments or dividends are sometimes made daily, as in the 
case of some gathered cream plants ; more often, how- 
ever, they are made weekly, semi-monthly and even 
monthly. 

The different steps in the calculation of dividends at 
creameries are as follows: 

First, find' the total pounds of butter fat received from 
all the patrons. This is done by finding the total amount 
of butter fat furnished by each patron separately and 
adding together the totals so found. In finding each 
patron's total butter fat, every delivery of cream is mul- 
tiplied by its test and the results of the different deliv- 
eries added together. 

Second, find the net money from the sale of butter by 
multiplying each sale of butter by its price and deducting 
from the amount thus found the cost of making the butter. 

Third, find the price per pound of butter fat by divid- 

287 



288 " MARKET DAIRYING 

ing the total net money by the total pounds of butter fat 
delivered by all the patrons. 

Fourth, find each patron's share of the money by mul- 
tiplying the total pounds of butter fat delivered by him 
by the price per pound of butter fat. 

To make the above steps perfectly clear, let us cal- 
culate a weekly dividend at a creamery where only cream 
is received and where A, B and C are the patrons : 

Illustrating the First Step. The total butter fat de- 
livered by A, B and C is as follows : 

Pounds Pounds of 

of cream. Test. butter fat. 

May 2 42 X 35.4 = 14.87 

May 4 50 X 30.1 = 15.05 

May 6 48 X 30.5 = 14.64 

May 7 20 X 36.6 = 7.32 



-{ 



Total 51.88 



{May 2 
May 4 
May 6 
May 7 



23 X 40.5 = . 9-32 

4 29 X 30 . o = 8 . 00 

6 25 X 36.4 = 9.10 

13 X 35.0 = 4-55 



Total , 30.97 

May 2 64 X 33.0 = 21.T2 

C 1 May 4 69 X 31. 1 = 21.46 

May 6 58 X 37.5 = 21.75 

May 7 30 X 34.4 = 10.32 



I 



Total 74-65 

The total butter fat delivered by A, B and C equals 51.88 + 
30.97 + 74.63 equals 157-48 pounds. 

Illustrating the Second Step. The net money is 
found as follows: 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 289 

Pounds of Price per 

butter sold, pound. Amount. 

May 3 86 X 26^c = $22.79 

May 7 103 X 26c = 26. 78 

Total lbs. butter 189 Total money $49-57 

At 33^2 cents a pound for making, the cost of manu- 
facture will be 3>4 X 189, or $6.62. Deducting this 
amount from the total money, there remains $42.95, 
which is the total net money due the patrons. 

Illustrating the Third Step. The price per pound of 
butter fat is obtained by dividing the total net money 
found in step two by the total pounds of butter fat found 
in step one. Thus: $42.95-^-157.48 = 27.27 cents = 
price per pound of butter fat. 

Illustrating the Fourth Step. Find the money due 
each patron by multiplying the butter fat furnished by 
him as determined in step one by the price per pound 
of butter fat as determined in step three. Thus: 

51.88 X $.2727 = $14.15 = A's money. 
30.97 X .2727 = 8.44 = B's money. 
74.65 X .2727 = 20.36 = C's money. 

WHERE WHOLE MILK IS RECEIVED. 

The method of calculating dividends at whole milk 
creameries is the same as that at hand separator creamer- 
ies except that a test is not made of each delivery of milk. 
Where whole milk is received a composite sample is made 
of each patron's milk ; that is, each patron is provided with 
a pint jar to which samples of his milk are added daily 
for one or two weeks when the composite sample is 
tested. A test of the composite sample represents the 



290 MARKET DAIRYING - 

average per cent of butter fat in the milk for the period 
during which the sample was gathered. 

The method of composite sampling employed by whole 
milk creameries is also used to some extent at hand sepa- 
rator creameries, but unless the cream is delivered in a 
fine, sweet condition, sufficiently accurate results cannot 
be obtained with this method. Usually hand separator 
cream is delivered in a more or less sour condition which 
does not permit of composite sampling. The fact that 
the deliveries of cream vary considerably in quantity and 
richness is a further reason why the composite method of 
testing cream is liable to lead to inaccurate results. 

WHERE BOTH MILK AND CREAM ARE RECEIVED. 

The calculation of dividends at creameries receiving both 
milk and cream differs from the method used where only 
milk or cream is received in that allowance must be made 
for the fat lost in the milk skimmed at the creamery. On 
an average 2 per cent of the total fat of milk is lost in the 
skimming process. Hence, if cream patrons are credited 
with all the fat they bring in the cream, it will be neces- 
sary to deduct 2 per cent of the fat brought in the milk 
by the whole milk patrons, which represents the amount 
carried home by them in the skimmed milk. 

Heretofore most creameries have equalized the pay- 
ment for milk and cream by increasing the butter fat 
from cream patrons by 2 per cent, which, so far as dol- 
lars and cents are concerned, will have the same effect 
as deducting 2 per cent from the fat delivered by whole 
milk patrons. The latter method, however, results in a 
greater overrun and therefore in a greater price per 
pound of butter fat. In order, therefore, to put cream- 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 291 

eries receiving both whole milk and cream on a par with 
those receiving only cream, so far as overrun and price 
per pound of fat is concerned, it will be necessary to 
deduct 2 per cent from the fat delivered by whole milk 
patrons and not, as commonly done, add 2 per cent to 
the fat delivered by cream patrons. 

The following example illustrates how milk and cream 
patrons are credited with butter fat in making dividends 
at creameries receiving both milk and cream: 

Patron A delivers 6,500 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per 
cent. 

Patron B delivers 600 pounds of cream testing 30 per 
cent. 

A's total fat = 6,500 X .04 = 260 pounds. B's total 
fat = 600 X .30=180 pounds. To decrease A's fat by 
2 per cent, multiply 260, the total pounds of fat furnished 
in his milk, by .98, which equals 254.8. 

In making the dividend, therefore, A is paid for 254.8 
pounds of fat and B for 180 pounds. 

THE TWO PER CENT — HOW CALCULATED. 

In a well conducted creamery the average loss of fat 
in the skim-milk should not be more than .078%. Di- 
viding this figure by the average percentage of fat in 
milk, 3.9, we get .02. So that in the separating process* 
.02 pound of fat is lost in the skim-milk for every pound 
of fat present in the milk. 

From the above calculation it will be seen that the 
cream factor (2%) would necessarily vary with the 
efficiency of skimming and the average test of the milk. 
To determine what this shall be for any particular cream- 
ery divide the average loss of fat in the skim-milk by the 
average test of the milk at the creamery. 



292 MARKET DAIRYING 

METHODS OE PAYING FOR MILK AND CREAM. 

While practically all creameries buy milk or cream ac- 
cording to the amount of fat contained in it, the method of 
paying for same varies with different creameries. With 
proprietary whole milk creameries, the usual custom has 
been to guarantee patrons a certain price for butter 
based upon some leading market quotation and charge a 
fixed price for making the butter, say 3^ cents per 
pound. All of the butter made belongs to the patrons. 

Cooperative creameries, as a rule, pay for butter fat 
according to the net returns from the creamery; that is, 
they deduct from the total gross returns the actual cost 
of making the butter, plus a small sinking fund, and di- 
vide the balance on the basis of the amount of butter fat 
furnished by each. 

Many hand separator creameries, and most of the cen- 
tralizers, pay for butter fat according to market quota- 
tions on butter. The price paid averages, as a rule, from 
one to three cents below the average market price for 
butter, transportation charges being paid by the creamery. 

AVERAGING TESTS. 

In whole milk creameries, where the amount of milk 
delivered from day to day and the tests of the same vary 
but slightly, reasonably accurate results may be obtained 
by averaging two composite tests, each representing, ( say, 
one week's milk. With cream the matter is different. 
Cream deliveries from the same patron vary considerably 
in quantity and quality and hence averaging cream tests 
is almost certain to lead to fallacious results, as may be 
seen from the following example: 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 293 

The quantity and quality of cream delivered by a cer- 
tain patron for three days is as follows : 

Date. Lbs. cream. Per cent fat. 

May i 33 40. 5 

May 2 48 30.0 

May 3 55 28.5 

136 3)99.0 

Wrpng average test = 33-0 

Wrong total fat — 136 X 33 = 44.88 lbs. 

The correct average test is obtained by multiplying 
each delivery of cream by its test and dividing the total 
butter fat thus found by the total number of pounds of 
cream and multiplying the quotient by 100. Thus: 

Lbs. cream. Per cent fat. Lbs. fat. 

33 40.5 I3-36 

48 30.0 14.40 

v 55 28.5 15.68 

' 136 43-44 

Correct average test = (43.44 -5- 136) X 100 = 31.94%. 
Correct total fat — 43.44. 

CREAMERY STATEMENT. 

When the monthly or weekly payment is made, each 
patron is presented with an envelope upon which is 
printed his individual account with the creamery and also 
the entire transactions of the creamery. A check on the 
nearest bank, or the money, is placed in the envelope 
and handed to the patron on "pay day." Such a state- 
ment is shown on the next page. 



294 



MARKET DAIRYING 









Cre 


amery Co. 


IN ACCOUNT WITH 

Mr. 




For the mc 


mth of 




1QO 








No. lbs. milk 

by you, 
Average test, 
No. lbs. of but 
Price per lb. 


Cr. 

delivered 


Lbs. butter. 




Dr. 

..© 




Cash, 

Hauling, @. 
per 100 lbs. 


- 




ter f at, ... 




, 




$ 


$ 


Balance due you, 

Total lbs. milk delivered at creamery, - 

Average test at creamery, 

Total lbs. of Butter fat at creamerv. = 


$ 

a 








Sales 


r ibs. i 
i* 
<« 


3 




Of H 


«< 






Butter. 


ing. 

a 
s s 


S 




Less 

Balance due 
Per cent, ov 
Testing wit 


cts. for mak 
patrons, 
errun 




nessed by 
















PresL 
Sec'y. 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 295 

FACTORY DIVIDENDS. 

The different steps in calculating dividends at cheese 
factories are as follows: First find the total butterfat 
delivered by all the patrons. Let us suppose that during 
the first week of April Patron A delivered 700 pounds of 
milk testing 3.6% fat. 7. 00X 3-6=25. 2=number of 
pounds of fat in the 700 pounds of A's milk. Let ns 
suppose that during the same period Patron B delivered 
36.5 pounds of fat and Patron C 42 pounds. The total 
fat furnished by the three patrons is 25.2+36.5-J-42. or 
103.7 pounds. 

Having found the number of pounds of fat delivered, 
next find the net amount of money due the patrons. By 
referring to the sales book we find that the 103.7 pounds 
of fat made 270 pounds of cheese, which was sold at 18 
cents per pound. 27oX$.i&=$48.6o, the total money re- 
ceived for the 270 pounds of cheese. We will suppose 
that 1 24c was charged for making. The total charge 
for making. would be 270X1 H c > or $4-7 2 - Subtracting 
this from the total money, we have $43.88, which is the 
net money due the patrons. 

Next find the price per pound of fat by dividing the 
total net money by the total pounds of fat, thus: $43.88 
-f-i03.7=$423i=price per pound of fat. 

Now we find each patron's share of the money by mul- 
tiplying his fat by the price per pound of fat. Thus: 

A's money=25.2X$-423i=$io.66 
B's money=36.5X 4231= 1544 
C's money=42.oX 4 2 3i= l 7-77 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION. 

In warm climates and in localities where ice is not 
obtainable or only so at a high cost, cold may be produced 
by artificial means known as mechanical refrigeration. 
This system of refrigeration is also finding its way into 
creameries that are able to procure ice at a moderate cost 
but which are seeking more satisfactory means of control- 
ling the temperature of their cream, refrigerator, make 
room, etc. 

Refrigerating Machines. There are four kinds of 
machines used for refrigerating purposes: (i) vacuum 
machines in which water is used as the refrigerating 
medium; (2) absorption machines in which a liquid of a 
low boiling point is used as the refrigerating medium, the 
vapors being absorbed by water and again separated from 
it by distillation 5(3) compression machines which operate 
practically the same as the absorption machines except 
that the vapors in this case are compressed instead of 
absorbed; and (4) mixed absorption and compression ma- 
chines. 

Most of the machines in use at the present time 
belong to the compression type ; the following discussion 
will therefore confine itself strictly to this class of 
machines. 

Principle. The principle employed in mechanical re- 
frigeration is the production of cold by the evaporation 
of liquids which have a low boiling point, like liquid 
ammonia, liquid carbonic acid, ether, etc. 

296 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 



297 




Fig. 56.— Showing circulation of ammonia in mechanical refrigeration. 



298 MARKET DAIRYING 

When a liquid evaporates or changes into the gaseous 
state it absorbs a definite amount of heat called heat of 
vaporization or ''latent" heat. Thus to change water from 
212° F. to steam at 21 2° F. requires a considerable 
amount of heat which is apparently lost, hence the term 
latent (hidden) heat. 

Ether changes into its gas at a much lower temperature 
than water which is illustrated by its instant evaporation 
when poured upon the hand. The heat of the hand in this 
case is sufficient to cause vaporization and the sensation 
of cold indicates that a certain amount of heat has been 
abstracted from the hand in the process. 

Manifestly for refrigerating purposes a liquid must be 
used that can be evaporated at a very low temperature; 
for the cold in mechanical refrigeration is produced, by 
the evaporation of the liquid in iron pipes, the heat for 
the purpose being absorbed from the room in which the 
pipes are laid. Anhydrous ammonia has thus far proven 
to be the best refrigerant for ordinary refrigeration. 

Anhydrous Ammonia (Refrigerant). This substance 
is a gas at ordinary temperatures but liquifies at 30 F. 
under one atmospheric pressure. In practical refrigera- 
tion the ammonia is liquified at rather high temperatures 
by subjecting it to pressure. The ammonia is alternately 
evaporated and liquified so that it may be used over and 
over again almost indefinitely^ 

Circulation of Ammonia. The cycle of operations in 
mechanical refrigeration is as follows: The liquid am- 
monia starts on its course from a liquid receiver, and 
enters the refrigerating coils in which it evaporates, ab- 
sorbing a large amount of heat in the process. By means 
of a compression pump, operated by an engine, the am- 
monia vapors are forced in the condenser coils where the 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 299 

ammonia, under pressure, is again liquified by running 
cold water over the coils. From the condenser coils it 
enters the liquid receiver, thence again on its journey 
through the refrigerating coils. 

The intensity of refrigeration is regulated by an ex- 
pansion valve, which is placed between the liquid receiver 
and the refrigerating coils. This valve may be adjusted 
so as to admit the desired quantity of liquid ammonia to 
the coils. 

Systems of Refrigeration. There are two ways in 
which the cooling may be accomplished by mechanical 
refrigeration: (i) by evaporating the liquid ammonia 
in a series of pipes placed in the room to be refrigerated ; 
and (2) by evaporating the liquid ammonia in a series of 
coils laid in a tank of brine and forcing the cold brine 
into coils laid in the room to be refrigerated. The former 
is known as the direct expansion system, the latter as the 
indirect expansion or brine system. 

Brine System. In creameries where the machinery is 
run only five or six hours a day the brine system is the 
more satisfactory as it permits the storing of a large 
amount of cold in the brine, which may be drawn upon 
when the machinery is not running. 

The brine tank is preferably located near the ceiling in 
the refrigerator where it will serve practically the same 
purpose as an overhead ice box. In addition to this, the 
refrigerator should contain a coil of direct expansion 
pipes which may be used when extra cold is desired. 

Brine from the above tank may be used for cooling 
cream by conducting it through coils which are movable 
in the cream vat ; it may also be conducted through sta- 
tionary pipes placed in the make room for the purpose 



300 



MARKET DAIRYING 



of controlling the temperature during the warm summer 
months. 

The brine is kept circulating by means of a brine pump. 

Strength of Brine. The brine is usually made from 
common salt (sodium chloride). The stronger the brine 
the lower the temperature at which it will freeze. Its 
strength should be determined by the lowest temperature 
to be carried in the brine tank. The following table from 
Siebel shows the freezing temperature as well as the 
specific heat of brine of different strengths: 



Percentage oi salt by weight. 


Pounds of 
salt per 
gallon of 
solution. 


Freezing 
point (F.). 


Specific 
heat. 


1 


0.084 
0.169 
0.256 
0.344 
0.523 
0.708 
0.897 
1.092 
1.389 
1.928 
2.488 
2.610 


30.5 

29.3 
27.8 
26.3 
23.9 
21.2 
18.7 
16.0 
12.2 
. 6.1 
0.5 
-1.1 


.992 


2 


.984 


3 


.976 


4 


.968 


6 


.946 


8 


.919 


10 


.892 


12 


.874 


15 


.855 


20 


.829 


25 


.783 


26 


.771 







The fact that the specific heat grows less as the brine 
becomes stronger shows it to be wise not to have the 
solution stronger than necessary, because the less the 
specific heat the less heat a given amount of brine is able 
to take up. 

Refrigerating Capacity. When speaking of a machine 
of one ton refrigerating capacity, we mean that it will 
produce, in the course of twenty-four hours, the amount 
of cold that would be given off by one ton of ice at 32 ° F. 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 301 

melting into water at the same temperature. Its actual 
ice making capacity is usually about 50% less. 

Size of Compressor. In a moderately well insulated 
creamery handling from twenty to twenty-five thousand 
pounds of milk daily, a four-ton compressor will be large 
enough. With a compressor of this size the machinery 
will not have to be run more than five or six hours a day. 
If the machinery is run longer than this a smaller com- 
pressor will do the work. 

Power Required to Operate. The power required per 
ton of refrigeration is less the larger the machine. With 
a four-ton compressor the power required is from two to 
two and one-half horse power per ton of refrigerating 
capacity in twenty-four hours. 

Refrigerating Pipes. The refrigerating pipes vary 
from one 'to two inches in diameter. With moderately 
good insulation it is estimated that by the direct expansion 
system one running foot of two-inch piping will keep a 
room of forty cubic feet content at a temperature of 32 ° 
F. With brine nearly twice this amount of piping would 
be necessary. 

For cooling the brine in the brine tank, about 140 feet 
of 1 % -inch pipes are required per ton of refrigerating 
capacity. 

Expense of Operating. When a refrigerating plant 
has once been installed and charged with the necessary 
ammonia, the principal expense connected with it will be 
the power required to operate the compressor. This 
power in a creamery is supplied by the creamery engine. 
The ammonia, being used over and over again, will add 
but a trifle to the running expenses. Nor can the water 
used for cooling the ammonia vapors add much to the 
cost of operating. It is true, however, that the refrigera- 



302 MARKET DAIRYING 

ting plant will require some of the butter maker's time 
and attention, but this is probably no more than would be 
consumed in the handling of ice in the creamery. 

Charging and Operating an Ammonia Plant. This 
subject is so ably discussed in The Engineer by H. H. 
Kelley that the author feels he can do no better than 
present the following extracts from that article. 

"When about to start an ice or refrigerating plant, the 
first thing necessary is to see that the system is charged 
with the proper amount of ammonia. Before the ammonia 
is put in, however, all air and moisture must be removed ; 
otherwise the efficiency of the system will be seriously 
interfered with. Special valves are usually provided for 
discharging the air, which is removed from the system 
by starting the compressor and pumping the air out, the 
operation of the gas cylinder being just the reverse of that 
when it is working ammonia gas. It is practically impos- 
sible to get all the air out of the entire system by this 
means, so that some other course must be taken to remove 
any remaining air after the compressor has been started at 
regular work. This can be accomplished by admitting the 
ammonia a little at a time, permitting the air to escape 
through a purge valve, the air being thus expelled by dis- 
placement. The cylinder containing the anhydrous am- 
monia is connected to the charging valve by a suitable 
pipe, and the valve opened. The compressor is then kept 
running slowly with the suction and discharge valves wide 
open and the expansion valve closed. When one cylinder 
is emptied put another in its place, being careful to close 
the charging valve before attempting to remove the empty 
cylinder, opening it when the fresh cylinder is connected 
up. 

"From sixty to seventy-five per cent of the full charge is 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 393 

sufficient to start with so that the air may have an oppor- 
tunity of escaping with as little loss of ammonia as possi- 
ble. An additional quantity of ammonia may then be put 
in each day until the full charge has been introduced. 
When the ammonia cylinders have been emptied and a 
charge of, say, seventy-five per cent of the full amount has 
been introduced, the charging valve is closed and the ex- 
pansion valve opened. The glass gauge on the ammonia 
receiver will indicate the depth of ammonia. The appear- 
ance of frost on the pipe leading to the coils and the 
cooling of the brine in the tank will indicate that enough 
ammonia has been introduced to start with. It is some- 
times difficult to completely empty an ammonia cylinder 
without first applying heat. The process of cooling being 
the same when the ammonia expands from the cylinder 
into the system as when leaving the expansion valve, a 
low temperature is produced and the cylinder and con- 
nections become covered with frost. When this occurs the 
cylinder must be slightly warmed in order to be able to 
get all the ammonia out of it. The ammonia cylinders, 
when filled,' should never be subjected to rough handling 
and are preferably kept in a cool place free from any lia- 
bility to accident. The fact that ammonia is soluble in 
water should be well understood by persons charging a 
refrigerating system, or working about the plant. One 
part of water will absorb about 800 parts of ammonia gas 
and in case of accident to the ammonia piping or machine, 
water should be employed to absorb the escaping gas. 
Persons employed about a plant of this kind should be 
provided with some style of respirator, the simplest form 
of which is a wet cloth held over the mouth and nose. 

"After starting the compressor at the proper speed and 
adjusting the regulating valve note the temperature of 



304 MARKET DAIRYING 

the delivery pipe, and if there is a tendency to heat open 
it wider, and vice versa. This valve should be carefully 
regulated until the temperature of the delivery pipe is 
practically the same as the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser. With too light a charge of am- 
monia the delivery pipe will become heated even when 
the regulating valve is wide open. As a general thing 
when the plant is working properly the temperature of 
the refrigerator is about 15 lower than the brine being 
used, the temperature of the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser will be about 15 lower than that of 
the condenser, the pointers on the gauges will vibrate the 
same distance at each stroke of the compressor and the 
frost on the pipes entering and leaving the refrigerator 
will be about the same. By placing the ear close to the 
expansion valve the ammonia can be heard passing 
through it, the sound being uniform and continuous when 
everything is working properly. 

"When air is present the flow of ammonia will be more 
or less intermittent, which irregularity is generally notice- 
able through a change in the usual sound heard at the ex- 
pansion valve. The pressure in the condenser will also be 
higher and the effect of the apparatus as a whole will 
be changed, and, of course, not so good. These changes 
will be quickly noticed by a person accustomed to the 
conditions obtaining when everything is in order and 
working properly. 

"The removal of air is accomplished in practically the 
same manner as when charging the system, permitting 
it to escape through the purging valve a little at a time 
so as not to lose any more gas than is absolutely necessary. 

"The presence of oil or water in the system is generally 
detected by shocks occurring in the compressor cylinder. 



MECHANICAL' REFRIGERATION 305 

"In nearly all plants the presence of oil in the system of 
piping is unavoidable. The oil used for lubricating pur- 
poses, especially at the piston rod stuffing boxes, works 
into the cylinders and is carried with the hot gas into the 
ammonia piping, where it never fails to cause trouble. 
The method of removing the air from the system has 
already been referred to, but the removal of oil is accomp- 
lished by means of an oil separator. This is placed in 
the main pipe between the compressor and the condenser, 
and is of about the size of the ammonia receiver. Some- 
times another oil separator is placed in the return pipe 
close to the compressor, which serves to eliminate any 
remaining oil in the warmer gas and to remove pieces of 
scale and other foreign matter which, if permitted to enter 
the compressor cylinder, would tend to destroy it in a 
very short time. 

"The oil, which always gets into the system sooner or 
later and in greater or less quantity, depending upon the 
care exercised to avoid it, acts as an insulator and pre- 
vents the rapid transfer of heat from the ammonia to the 
pipe that ought to obtain, and also occupies considerable 
space that is required for the ammonia where the best re- 
sults are to be obtained." 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK VESSELS. 

Wash Sinks. A matter of importance in washing 
milk vessels is to have the right kind of sinks, three of 
which are needed for the most satisfactory work: One 




Fig. 57.— Wash Sinks. 

for rinsing before washing, one for washing and one for 
final rinsing. 

For convenience the wash sink should be thirty-six 



306 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



307 



inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. 
The bottom should be round and two feet from the floor. 
When closer to the floor than this too much stooping is 
required. 




Milk Bottle Brush. 
A Good Cleaning Brush. 

Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable ma- 
terials for the construction of wash sinks. They should 
be provided with steam (or hot water) and cold water 
pipes as shown in Fig. 57. 

Method of Washing. All vessels should be thor- 
oughly rinsed in 
warm water to re- 
move small residues 
of milk and cream. 
The rinsing is fol- 
lowed by washing 
with moderately hot 
water to which a 
handful of some 
cleaning powder has 
been added. The 
washing should be 
done with brushes 
rather than cloths be- 
cause the bristles en- 

... Fig. 58.— Bottle Washer. 

ter into crevices which 

a cloth could not possibly reach. Finally rinse the vessels 

in clean water. 

A bottle washer, like that shown in Fig. 58, saves much 




308 



MARKET DAIRYING 



labor and does very efficient work. The motive power 
may be either steam or water. 

Sterilizing. Vessels that have been washed in the man- 
ner described above may look perfectly clean, but may 
still be far from being free from bacteria. These can be 
destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling 
temperature for some time. 




Fig. 59.— Cheap Arrangement for Securing Hot Water. 

The simplest method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 
in boiling water for five minutes. This method com- 
mends itself especially to small dairymen who have no 
steam. 

Where no steam is available, the best means of pro- 
curing hot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 59. 

The hot water tank is that commonly used in residences 
for heating water for the bath tub and can be obtained 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



309 




Fig. 60.— Sterilizing Truck and Front of Brick Sterilizer. 

from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which 
iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater. 

The best method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 



310 



MARKET DAIRYING 



in a steam chamber of sufficient strength to withstand a 
pressure of about fifty pounds to the square inch. These 
sterilizers are usually constructed of concrete or brick and 




Fig. fit.— Cross-Section of Concrete Sterilizer. 

are provided with a heavy iron door which is large enough 

to admit a truck bearing the pails, cans, bottles, etc. Other 

sterilizers of this type are constructed of galvanized iron. 

The principal drawback to some of these sterilizers is 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



311 



their high cost, which renders their use by small dairy- 
men almost prohibitive. 

Cheap Sterilizers. A cross section through a cheap 
concrete sterilizer is shown in Fig. 61. It is essentially 
a rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover which 
is lined with zinc. The sides and bottom are five inches 
thick and are built of concrete, which is made up of one 
part cement, two parts sand, and two parts coarse gravel. 
A thin coat, consisting of one part cement and two parts 
sand, is used as an inside finish. 

Fig. 62 shows a common galvanized iron sterilizer 
which answers the purpose for small dairymen. 




Fig. 62. -A Cheap Sterilizer. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



DAIRY HOUSES. 



Location. In selecting a site for a dairy house, con- 
venience and sanitation should be given first considera- 
tion. A well drained spot, free from rubbish and bad 
odors, and within reasonable distance from the barn 
should be selected. An abundance of good, pure water 
must be available. 

Floor Plans Designed by the Author. Dairymen who 
sell milk and cream occasionally have a surplus of these 
products on their hands, which is usually made into butter. 
Floor plans for dairy houses must therefore provide for 
small buttermaking outfits in addition to all the necessary 
apparatus for the handling of milk and cream. 

The floor plan shown in Fig. 63 is designed to meet 
the needs of small dairymen. Figs. 64 and 66 illustrate 
plans which will answer the needs of dairymen having 
from twenty to fifty cows. The first two plans provide 
for retail milk ; the last provides for farm buttermaking. 
There is no question that refrigerating machinery can be 
employed very advantageously in a great percentage of 
the larger dairies. See Fig. 68, page 318. 

Details of Construction. Tlie foundation for the 
walls may be constructed of stone, brick or concrete. It 
should rest upon firm, solid ground below the frost line, 
and the top must be at least one foot above ground. 

In building the walls, place the studs two feet apart 

312 



( Stovc) 




313 



Extreme length, 16 feet. 
I Extreme width, 12 feet. 




Fig. 63.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk. 

and tack building paper on both sides. Weather 
board the outside and finish the inside as follows: 
Board up preferably with tongued and grooved 
lumber, and cover the boards with two thicknesses of 



314 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 64.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk Trade, Suitable for Fifty 
Cows. 18'x24\ 

roofing paper. Next put on furring strips, one foot apart, 
and to these fasten wire lathing. If the lathing is pro- 
vided with one-inch steel ribs the furring strips are not 



DAIRY HO USB 



315 



needed. Next apply one and one-half inches of cement 
plaster consisting of one part cement, three parts clean, 
coarse sand, and one part slacked lime paste. Press the 




Fig. 65.— Milk House for Cream Patrons. 

concrete partly through the wire lathing. Finish with one 
part cement and one part sand and trowel off as smoothly 
as possible. This construction provides one three-fourths 
inch and one four-inch dead air spaces. 



316 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 66.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Farm Buttcrinaking. 



DAIRY HOUSE 



317 



Construct a four-inch concrete floor upon a well tamped 
foundation consisting of gravel, cobble stones and cinders. 



TEST TABLE 




(stove) 



5X10 



WATER 
TANK 



p 



7X10 



MILK 
COOLER 



Fig. 67.— Milk House Whole Milk Patrons. 

These materials afford good drainage and thus prevent the 
cold and dampness Ltsually associated with concrete floors. 
In preparing the concrete for the floor use one part 



318 



MARKET DAIRYING 




Fig. 68.— Floor Plan of Dairy House Suitable for Forty to 
Eighty Cows. (Mechanical Refrigeration.) 18'x30'. 



DAIRY HOUSE 319 

cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts 
gravel or crushed stone. Finish with one part cement and 
two parts sand. 

All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in 
the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor 
with concrete to make them more easily cleanable. 

The ceiling should be about twelve feet high and built 
of the best ceiling lumber. Keep the ceiling well painted. 

Enough windows must be provided to afford ample 
light and to admit sunshine to all parts of the building. 

Provide ventilation in the milk and wash rooms by 
running tight ventilating shafts from the ceiling through 
the top of the roof. 

Sewerage. Effective sewerage must be provided at 
the time the floor is laid. A bell trap should be placed 
in the center of each room and carefully connected with 
the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to 
keep its odors a safe distance from the dairy house. 

Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is 
absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can 
easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies 
are a prolific source of milk contamination and must 
therefore be rigidly excluded from the dairy. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

CITY MILK AND ICE CREAM PLANTS. 

Perhaps of all dairy buildings, the least uniformity 
of construction is found in city milk and ice cream plants. 
This fact was thoroughly impressed upon the author dur- 
ing a tour of inspection which included visits to some 
of the best plants in the country. 

It is to be expected that the same method of construc- 
tion cannot be followed in all its details under all condi- 
tions, yet it is believed that there are at least some prin- 
ciples that may be advantageously embodied in the con- 
struction of all buildings of this kind. The plans which 
accompany this article are, therefore, not submitted with 
the idea of meeting all conditions, but rather to furnish 
suggestions which it is believed will prove valuable to 
most prospective builders. 

City Milk Plants. For sanitary reasons, it is desir- 
able to eliminate pumps and piping as far as possible. 
Whatever piping is needed should be in short sections, 
easily detachable, smooth and well tinned, not galvanized. 

In the gravity scheme shown in the illustration on 
page 322, the amount of piping is reduced to a mini- 
mum. The milk cans are raised to the second floor by 
means of an elevator. Here the milk is sampled and 
weighed and takes its course as shown in the vertical 
section. It will be noted that from the receiving vat the 
milk passes into- a clarifier which removes any suspended 
foreign matter from the milk. Many milk plants do not 

320 



CITY MILK AND ICE CREAM PLANTS 321 

use clarifiers, but those who do, claim that the clarific- 
tion of milk is a paying proposition. So long as milk is 
not produced under the sanitary conditions which now 
prevail upon certified dairy farms, just so long will clari- 
fication remain a desirable practice. 

The plans submitted provide for pasteurization by the 
held or retarder process. When the heating is finished 
the milk is discharged over a large cooler of the tubular 
style which is most commonly used in milk plants. 

It will be noted that the plan provides for a room de- 
voted exclusively for making butter, ice cream, cultured 
milk, fancy cheese and modified milk, all of which can 
be profitably undertaken by milk dealers, and sufficient 
room should be provided to allow for expansion in these 
side lines. 

One common mistake in milk plants is the failure to 
isolate the wash room. This is a very essential matter 
because milk is certain to become contaminated when the 
washing is done in the same room in which it is pasteur- 
ized or bottled. 

The illustration shows the use of steam only as a source 
of power. In some of the larger plants, however, the 
machinery is run with gas power, which is far more 
economical than steam. It is estimated that a pound of 
coal burned in a gas producer will develop about eight 
times as much power as the same amount of coal burned 
under the boiler. 

In a large and expensive milk plant recently con- 
structed the gravity system of handling milk is used dif- 
ferently from that shown in the foregoing illustration. 
The different machines are elevated one above the other 
by a series of platforms arranged between the floor and 
the ceiling. Necessarily the ceiling is a considerable dis- 



322 



MARKET DAIRYING 



tance from the floor. An elevator brings the milk to 
the receiving vat from which it flows into the clarifier, 
thence into a standardizing vat, thence into the pasteur- 
izer, and so on down the line. The space under the plat- 
forms is used as a wash room. 



I PLATFORM 



COLD STORAGE 



WASH ROOM 



.MOD/F/ED M/L/f 



BOTTLE FILLERS 



SEPARATING 
BUTTERMAfflNG 
CULTURED MILK 
FANCY CHEESE 
/CE CREAM 



FIRST FLOOR 



ICE MAKING 
TANKS 



ELE- T0ILLT[ 
VAWR 



COMPRESSOR ENGINE 



COAL 



BO/LEff 



BASEMENT 



COLD STORAGE 



ELE 

MM 



wj^iXP 



CLARIFIER 

DDD 

PASTEURIZERS 



TESTING 

ROOM 



OFFICE 



GENERAL 
STORAGE 



SECOND FLOOR 



% RECEWNG VAT 
RAfTEl/R/ZERS*-5: 



im 



COOLER 



MOTTLE FILLER 



'COLD STORAGE 



BASEMENT 



VERTICAL SECTION-SHOWINS COURSE OF MILK 



Fig. 69.— Plan for City Milk Plant. 



In some large plants the milk is weighed in a can 
sunk in the first floor and from there run into a receiv- 
ing vat , in the basement. From this point the milk is 
pumped to the top floor. 

In still other plants, all the work is done on one floor, 
the milk being pumped from one machine to another, 
three, and in some cases four, pumps being kept busy. 



CITY MILK AND ICE CREAM PLANTS 



323 



City Ice Cream Plants. In the construction of ice 
cream plants, the situation is similar to that of milk 
plants, in that each plant has its own peculiar arrange- 



ElE WTOR. 



Wash 
Room 



Butter, 
Making- 



T Platform 



Cold 
(Storage 



Freezers 

ooo 



First Floor. 



Ice 

Making- 
Tan k.c5 



az 

S3 

2 uj 

8= — 

= z 



Coal 



Boiler. 



Basement 



TEcSTING- 

Tloom 



Office 



General 
(Storage 



El EVATO^ 



Platform 



H 



Hori OGEN IZ F.RPA3 T EUBIZt R3 

DDD 

Mixing andHoldingVak 

O'O 

I I 

GoOLE.R_» 



Second Floor, 




Vehticalc5ection Showing (quiweofCr&m 



Fig. 70.— Plan for City Ice Cream Plant. 



ment for handling the cream. Some ice cream manufac- 
turers follow the one floor plan, others follow the grav- 
ity system entirely. The one floor plan in ice cream 
plants is open to the same objection as the one floor plan 



324 MARKET DAIRYING 

in city milk plants, namely, requiring the use of pumps 
and too much piping. 

The two floor plan, shown in the accompanying illus- 
tration, seems to furnish the best conditions for handling 
the cream. An elevator is used to raise the cream cans 
to the second floor where the cream is weighed and 
sampled and then emptied into a receiving vat placed 
upon an elevated platform. From the receiving vat the 
cream flows into a "held" process pasteurizer and from 
this it is discharged into the homogenizer, a machine 
which is at present used by most large ice cream manu- 
facturers. The homogenizer forces the cream to the top 
of the cooler, which should be of ample size to permit 
reducing the temperature to near freezing. From the 
cooler the cream passes into the mixing vat in which it 
is standardized and the necessary ingredients added. 
From the mixing vat the "mix" flows directly into the 
freezers. 

Most ice cream manufacturers prefer to keep the 
pasteurized cream in the refrigerator several days, and 
even a week, before freezing so as to give more body 
to the cream, thus increasing the "swell" in the 
freezing process. Storing cream in this manner is open 
to two serious objections: (i) the increased labor and 
expense of storing; and (2) the deterioration in the flavor 
of the cream. There is nothing to justify the prolonged 
storing of pasteurized cream before freezing, except the 
slightly increased overrun, and the best ice cream manu- 
facturers have found that the extra cost of labor and 
cold will offset any advantage in yield. Every hour 
cream is held in cold storage the flavor suffers and for 
this reason some of the best ice cream manufacturers 
freeze their cream the same day it is pasteurized. 



CITY MILK AND ICE CREAM PLANTS 325 

In the foregoing illustration the arrangement does not 
provide for holding cream in the refrigerator after pas- 
teurization. Cream, however, could be held over a day 
in the mixing vat by providing the latter with the neces- 
sary cooling coils. 

What has been said in regard to the economy of using 
gas power in milk plants applies with equal force to ice 
cream plants. 

Sanitary Features. Matters of prime importance 
in the construction of milk and ice cream plants include 
an abundance of light and the use of material which can 
easily be kept clean. There is no better disinfectant than 
sunlight, and too many windows cannot be inserted in 
buildings used for handling milk and cream. To secure 
the maximum amount of sunlight some of the best milk 
plants use dormer windows or skylight. 

To be sanitary, the floors, walls and ceiling should 
be constructed of concrete; in fact the entire building 
should be built of brick or concrete. Where it is desired 
to combine "showiness" with sanitary efficiency, more 
expensive material such as tile may be used for inside 
finish. 

Reinforced Floors. To increase the wearing quality 
of concrete floors, perforated steel plates should be em- 
bedded in the surface of the concrete floor immediately 
after the cement finish has been applied. 



CHAPTER XXXX. 

THE BOILER AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 

A boiler is indispensible in a well equipped dairy. The 
steam which it provides is important, not only in securing 
hot water and in sterilizing, but also in furnishing power. 
A steam engine will be found useful in most dairies for 
pumping water, separating milk, churning and freezing 
cream, and by extending the shaft through one side of 
the building its usefulness may be extended to sawing 
wood, washing clothes, running the grindstone, etc. 

For the smaller dairies the upright form of boiler will 
be found the most satisfactory. But for dairies having 
upwards of fifty cows, the horizontal form of fire-tube 
boiler should be used. The latter style is laid in brick. 
The grates are supported upon brickwork and heat and 
smoke pass along the underside of the boiler toward 
the rear and return through the fire-tubes. To prevent 
radiation of heat the brick work must be built up to 
cover the entire boiler. The fire box must be constructed 
of the best fire brick. 

The various boiler accessories will be described in the 
following paragraphs : 

Glass Gauge. This is a glass tube attached to the 
side of the boiler to indicate the height of the water in 
it. It is so attached that its lowest point is about two 
inches above the highest part of the fire line of the boiler, 
its entire length being usually about fifteen inches. The 

326 



BOILER AND MANAGEMENT 327 

cock at the bottom is used to blow out the sediment that 
is liable to block the opening between it and the boiler. 
When this occurs the gauge becomes a false indicator. 
Frequent blowing out is therefore necessary. The cock 
next to the blow-out admits the water from the boiler. 
The cock above this admits the steam. When the glass 
breaks shut off the water first, then the steam. Always 
have a few extra glasses on hand so that the broken one 
can be immediately replaced. Owing to its tendency to 
clog, the gauge can not always be relied upon, hence the 
use of water cocks placed next to the glass gauge. 

Water Gauge Cocks. There are three of these used. 
The water level should be kept as near as possible to the 
middle cock. It should never go below the lower cock, 
nor above the upper. These cocks should be opened 
many times during the day, and so long as steam issues 
from the upper and water from the lower cock, the water 
level is all right. 

Steam Gauge. This shows the number of pounds of 
steam pressure per square inch on the boiler by means 
of a pointer moving around a dial. Below the dial is a 
loop which contains water to prevent injury to the gauge 
from the hot steam. The steam gauge is liable to get 
out of order and will then fail to show the true pressure. 
Such a condition is indicated by the safety valve. 

Safety Valve. This is placed on top of the steam 
chamber and permits the escape of steam when the steam 
pressure reaches the danger limit. It is an indispensable 
boiler attachment as without it the boiler would be a 
dangerous thing. There are two kinds of safety valves, 
the "pop" and "ball and lever" types. The former is 
considered the more desirable because it is not so easily 



328 MARKET DAIRYING 

tampered with. Both can be set to blow off at different 
pressures. 

Water Feed Apparatus. There are two ways of 
feeding water into a boiler, namely, with injectors and 
with pumps. 

Injector. This important boiler accessory is attached 
to the side of the boiler. It utilizes the steam 
directly from the boiler for forcing water into it 
against a pressure as great as that which sends it forth. 
The principle which makes this possible may be stated 
as follows : Steam issuing from a boiler under 70 pounds 
pressure has a velocity of 1,700 feet per second. When 
steam with this high velocity strikes the combining tube 
it produces suction which in turn induces a flow of 
water. As soon as the water enters the combining tube 
it is given motion by the high velocity of the steam, 
which immediately condenses and moves with the water 
into the boiler at a comparatively low velocity. The 
energy, therefore, by which steam can force water into the 
boiler against its own pressure is the latent heat resulting 
from the condensation of the steam in the combining tube. 

From this it must be evident that the efficiency of the 
injector is dependent upon the completeness with which 
the steam condenses. This is clearly proven by every 
day practical experience. When, for instance, the feed 
water is too hot, the steam pressure too high, or the 
steam is wet, the injector fails to work properly because 
the steam does not sufficiently condense when it strikes 
the feed water. 

Starting the Injector.- This is clone by opening the 
supply water valve one or two turns, then the steam valve 
wide. If steam issues from the overflow admit a little 
more water ; if water overflows admit less. 



BOILER AND MANAGEMENT 329 

Care of Injector. An injector will become coated 
with sediment or scale the same as the boiler and must, 
therefore, be frequently cleaned. This is best done by 
immersing it in a solution of one part muriatic acid and 
ten parts water. Allow to remain in this solution until 
the scale becomes soft enough to permit washing out. A 
clean injector rarely causes trouble but if trouble does 
occur it may be due to : (i) low steam pressure; (2) too 
hot water; (3) leaks in pipes and injector; (4) clogging 
of water pipe; (5) wet steam; (6) poor working condi- 
tion of check and overflow valves; (7) clogging of feed 
pipe where it enters the boiler. 

The injector is commonly used to feed water into the 
boiler because it is cheap and simple, and occupies little 
space. 

Pumps. There are two kinds ; ( 1 ) those run with 
steam directly, and (2) those run by the engine. The 
latter is the more economical and handles hot water with 
less trouble. It has one disadvantage, however, and that 
is it does not work unless the engine is running. With 
good pumps, especially those run by the engine, good 
work may be expected when the feed water has been heat- 
ed to 200 F. with the exhaust steam from the engine. 
With the injector such high temperatures are not per- 
missible, hence the greater economy of the pump. The 
great saving of fuel by feeding water hot into the boiler 
is illustrated by experiments made by Jacobus which 
show that with a direct acting pump 12.1% fuel is saved 
by heating the feed water from 6o° to 200 before pump- 
ing it into the boiler. With injectors the feed water used 
usually has a temperature of about 6o° F. 

Steam. Water is practically a non-conductor of heat. 
This means that it cannot conduct its heat to its neighbor- 



330 MARKET DAIRYING 

ing particles. When, therefore, heat is applied to the bot- 
tom of a vessel containing water, the particles at the 
bottom do not communicate their heat to the particles next 
above them, but expand and rise, cool ones taking their 
places. This gives rise to convection currents which tend 
to equalize the temperature of the water in the vessel. 
When the water has reached a uniform temperature of 
212° F. the particles begin to fly of! at the surface in the 
form of vapor, and this we call steam. To generate steam 
in a boiler, then, it is necessary to impart to the water in it 
a considerable amount of heat, which is produced by 
burning fuel in the fire box. 

FIRING OF BOILER. 

The immense amount of heat stored in wood and coal 
is rendered effective in the boiler by burning (combus- 
tion). To understand how to fire a boiler intelligently 
one must first learn what the process of burning consists 
of.. 

Process of Burning. Anything will burn when the 
temperature has been raised high enough to cause the 
oxygen of the air to unite with it. Thus, in "striking" 
a match the temperature is raised high enough by the 
friction produced to cause the match to burn. The burn- 
ing match will produce heat enough to ignite the kind- 
ling, which in turn, produces the necessary heat to ignite 
the wood or coal in the fire box of the boiler. Burning 
may, therefore, be defined as the union of the oxygen of 
the air with the fuel. In burning a pound of coal or wood 
a definite amount of air must be admitted to furnish the 
necessary oxygen for complete combustion. When oxygen 
is lacking part of the fuel passes out of the chimney un- 



BOILER AND MANAGEMENT 331 

burned in the form of gases. If, on the other hand, too 
much air is admitted the excess simply passes through 
the chimney, absorbing heat as it passes through the 
boiler. The problem of firing becomes, therefore, a diffi- 
cult one. 

Burning Coal and Wood. When hard coal is burned 
the fire should be thin. A thickness of three to four 
inches on the grates gives very satisfactory results. For 
best results with soft coal a thickness of six to seven 
inches is recommended. Whenever fresh coal is added it 
should be placed near the front and the hot coals pushed 
back. 

In case wood is burned the fire box should be kept well 
filled, care being necessary to keep every part of the grates 
well covered. 

GENERAL POINTERS ON FIRING. 

i. 'Boilers newly set should not be fired within two or 
three weeks after setting and then the firing should be 
very gradual for several days to allow the masonry to 
harden without cracking. 

2. Never fire a boiler before determining the water 
level by trying the water gauge cocks. You can not 
entirely rely upon glass gauges, floats, and water alarms. 

3. When starting the fire, open the upper water gauge 
cock and do not close it until steam begins to issue from 
it. This permits the escape of confined air. 

4. Kindle the fire on a thin layer of coal to protect 
the grate bars. 

5. Always examine the safety valve before starting a 
fire. 

6. When starting the fire all drafts should be open. 



332 MARKET DAIRYING 

7. The firing should be gradual until all parts of the 
boiler have been heated. 

8. Never allow any part of the grate bars to become 
uncovered during firing. 

9. Frequently clean the ash pit to prevent overheating 
of grates from the hot cinders underneath. 

10. The coals upon the grates should not be larger 
than a man's fist. 

n. Remember that firing up a boiler rapidly is apt to 
cause leaks. 

12. Remember that too little water in the boiler causes 
leaks and explosions. 

13. Remember that soot and ashes on heating surfaces 
always waste fuel. 

14. When fire is drawn, close dampers and doors of 
furnace and ash pit. 

15. ■ Never open or close valves when the water is too 
low in the boiler, but immediately bank the fire with ashes 
or earth. Opening the safety valve at such a time will 
throw the water from the heated surfaces, resulting in 
overheating and possibly in explosions. 

16. Use the poker as little as possible in firing. 

17. Keep the grate bars free from "clinkers." 

18. When the steam pressure goes too high, start the 
pump, open the doors of the furnace and close the ash 
pit. 

19. A steady and even fire saves fuel. 

GENERAL CARE OE BOIEER. 

i. Always close the steam and water valves of the 
glass gauge when you leave the building for half an 
hour or more. 



BOILER AND MANAGEMENT 333 

2. Water gauges should frequenty be blown out and 
cleaned. 

3. Keep the exterior of the boiler dry. Moisture will 
corrode and weaken it. 

4. The boiler should be blown off under low pressure 
every two or three days. 

5. A boiler that is not used for some time should be 
emptied and dried. If this cannot readily be done, fill 
it full of water to which a little soda has been added. 

6. Frequently examine the safety valve to see that it 
is in good working order. 

7. Do not empty boiler while brick work is very hot. 

8. Never pump cold water into a hot boiler. Leaks 
and explosions may be the result. 

9. Leaky gauges, cocks, valves, and flues should be 
repaired at once. 

10. Do not fail to examine the pressure gauge fre- 
quently. 

11. It is good policy to have two means of feeding a 
boiler. The pump or injector may get out of order and 
cause delay and danger. 

12. Feed pumps and injectors need frequent cleaning 
to keep them in good working order. 

13. Look out for air leaks. If air is admitted any- 
where except through the grates serious waste may re- 
sult. Such leaks are to be looked for in broken doors and 
poor brick work. 

14. Flues should be cleaned often, especially if soft 
coal is burned. This will prevent overheating of metal 
and at the same time save fuel. 

15. Do not allow filth to accumulate around the boiler 
or boiler room. 

16. Keep all the bright work about the boiler "shiny." 



334 MARKET DAIRYING 

iy. Do not 'fail to empty the boiler every week or two 
and refill with fresh water. 

1 8. Have your steam gauge tested at least twice a 
year. 

BOILER INCRUSTATION* 

In all boilers after a period of use, there is deposited 
upon the parts below the water level a scale or sediment 
known as boiler incrustation. 

Cause of Scale. The formation of scale is due to 
the impurities contained in the feed water. When impure 
water is fed into the boiler the impurity first manifests 
itself in the form of scum on top of the boiling water. 
The heavier particles of the scum slowly unite and sink 
to the bottom where they first appear as mud. By con- 
tinued exposure to high temperature, this mud gradually 
forms into a hard impervious scale which usually con- 
sists largely of lime. 

Objection to Scale. I. The excessive formation of 
boiler scale is the immediate cause of most boiler explo- 
sions. The scale acts as a non-conductor of heat, so that 
in cases where the capacity of the boiler is severely taxed, 
the metal becomes overheated, thus materially weakening 
it. The scale is, therefore, not only dangerous, but by 
overheating the metal, also materially shortens the life 
of the boiler. 2. Another most serious objection to scale 
is its wastefulness of fuel. This becomes evident when 
we note that the heat before reaching the water must first 
be conducted through a non-conducting layer of incrusta- 
tion. 

Prevention of Scale. Since nearly all water used for 
boilers is more or less impure, it is evident that to prevent 
scale, boilers must receive frequent cleaning. How often 



BOILER AND MANAGEMENT 335 

this needs to be done is, of course, dependent upon the 
amount and character of the impurity in the water. Boilers 
are kept clean in three different ways, (1) by blowing 
off at low pressure, (2) by cleaning through manhole, 
and (3) by using boiler compounds. 

(1). By blowing the boiler off at low pressure most 
of the mud will be blown out. But care must be taken 
that the pressure is not above ten pounds and that there is 
no more fire in the fire box, otherwise the mud, instead 
of flowing out with the water, will bake on and form 
scale. 

(2). A good way of removing mud is to 'allow the 
boiler to cool off and then run a rubber hose through the 
manhole. By working the hose and forcing water 
through it the sediment can be removed. 

(3) Boiler compounds are used to keep boilers free 
from scale. The kind of compound to be used is deter- 
mined by the character of the impurities of the water. 
Most dairies use well water for the boiler and the chief 
impurity in this is lime. The best compound for water 
of this kind is soda. Well water contains the lime in 
widely different proportions. In order, therefore, to as- 
certain the proportion of soda to feed water the following 
method is recommended by Hawkins: 

"1. Add one sixteenth part of an ounce of soda to a 
gallon of the feed water and boil it. 2. When the sedi- 
ment thrown down by the boiling has settled to the bottom 
of the kettle, pour the clear water off and add one-half 
drachm of soda to this. Now, if the water remains clear, 
the soda which was put in has removed the lime. But 
if it becomes muddy, the second addition of soda is neces- 
sary." In this way the amount of soda to be added to 
the feed water can be calculated with sufficient accuracy. 



336 MARKET DAIRYING 

Tan bark is very efficient in removing boiler scale but 
may injure the iron. 

Kerosene answers the same purpose but renders the 
steam unfit for use in the dairy. 

When the water is salt or acid, a piece of metallic zinc 
occasionally placed in the boiler will prevent corrosion. 
Water of this kind can usually be told by its corrosive 
effect on copper and brass. Acid water can also be de- 
tected with blue litmus paper, which it turns red. 

WET AND DRY STEAM. 

Wet Steam.. This is steam holding in suspension ex- 
tremely small particles of water which are thrown off* 
from the water surface while steam is generating. The 
following are the causes of wet steam: 

i. Impure water in the boiler. 

2. Too much water in the boiler. 

3. Too little evaporating surface for the amount of 
steam used. This is one of the chief objections to upright 
and too small boilers. 

4. Violent agitation of the water in the boiler caused 
by too rapid a generation of steam. 

Wet steam causes "priming" and is wasteful of heat. 

Dry Steam. This is saturated steam holding no water 
mechanically in suspension. High steam pressure and a 
large steam space above the water level are conducive 
to dry steam. 



CHAPTER XXXXI. 

WATER AND ICE SUPPLY. 
WATER SUPPLY 

Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease 
in farm homes is directly traceable to infected water. 
Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by pol- 
luted well water that physicians at once look to this as 
the probable cause wherever this disease is found to ex- 
ist. 

Where wells infected with disease germs happen to ex- 
ist on dairy farms that supply milk to neighboring cities, 
disease is not limited to the dairyman's own family, but 
may be spread along the entire milk route. Many typhoid 
fever epidemics have been positively traced to milk which 
has become infected through water containing the disease 
germs. Nowhere is pure water so important, therefore, 
as upon dairy farms. 

The disease germs usually find their way into the milk 
through milk vessels which have been washed with in- 
fected water. The use of such water for washing cows' 
udders previous to milking may also be the means of in- 
fecting the milk supply. 

Location of Well. The most satisfactory location for 
the well is at the dairy house where the coldest water is 
required and where it will be most convenient. Here the 
water for both the dairy, the home, and the stock can be 
pumped with the dairy engine. Further, the well, like 

337 



338 



MARKET DAIRYING 



the dairy house, should stand on slightly elevated ground 
so as to insure drainage away from it. 

Construction of Well. In a properly constructed 
well, no water should enter it except near the bottom. 
This compels the water to pass through a thickness of 
earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a 
reasonable depth. 

Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the 




Ordinary Weft. 



Fig. 71.— Soil Strata. (From Harrington's "Practical Hygiene.") 

water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well, 
commonly knov/n as the Abyssinian tube well, is the 
cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by 
driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower 
end of which is pointed and perforated. 

In case rocks and hard clay must be penetrated, or great 
depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or 
drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight 
iron pipes, will be found most satisfactory. 



WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 



339 



Water from the upper pervious stratum should be 
avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind 
just described. Especially is this necessary where the 
wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sink- 
ing the well" through an impervious stratum, like that 
shown in Fig. 71. 

The most dangerous well is the common dug well with 
pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into 
it from outhouses, barnyards and cesspools. Wells of 
this type are altogether too common on dairy farms. 




Fig. 72. -Sources of Well Water Contamination. (From Bui. 143 Kan. 
Exp. Sta.) 

All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided 
with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent 
the entrance of impurities into the shaft. 



ice SUPPLY. 

Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for 



340 MARKET DAIRYING 

mechanical refrigeration, ice is indispensible in furnish- 
ing the best quality of milk and cream. A low enough 
temperature cannot be secured with water alone, neither 
can the cooling be accomplished as quickly as is desirable 
for best results. Furthermore, a satisfactory cold storage 
cannot be had without the use of ice. 

Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can 
be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This 
is due to the latent or "hidden" cold in ice. Thus to 
convert one pound of ice at 32 ° F. into water at the same 
temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words, 
enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of 
142 pounds of water one degree Fahr. 

Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily 
three things are necessary, ( 1 ) good drainage at the bot- 
tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation 
at the top. 

Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be se- 
sured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and 
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole 
being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust 
should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly 
upon the sawdust. 

Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards 
on the outside of the studs and common rough boards 
on the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty. 
The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of 
sawdust. 

Where no solid foundation walls are provided, earth 
must be banked around the ice house to prevent the en- 
trance of air along the base. 

The space between the sawdust covering on top of the 
ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the 



WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 341 

gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro- 
jecting through the roof should be provided to insure a 
free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only 
remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the 
roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust. 

The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust 
except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on 
top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one 
foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice. 

Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house will 
depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used. 
For a herd of 25 cows, in the North, an ice house 10 
feet square by 14 feet high will usually answer. These 
dimensions provide storage for 22 tons of ice, allowing 
one-foot space all around the ice for sawdust. In the 
South about 50% more ice is required than in the North. 

In calculating the amount of storage space needed for 
ice, it is necessary to know that one cubic foot of ice at 32 
F. weighs 57.5 pounds. 

As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the 
ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the 
sill to the gable at one end of the building. 

General Uses of Ice. Aside from the use of ice in 
cooling milk and cream, it can be employed to good ad- 
vantage in several other ways. Its value in the house- 
hold, in preserving meats, vegetables, and fruits cannot 
be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as cold 
drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months ! 
Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness. 

Cost of Making Ice. Where ice can be obtained with- 
in a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling, and 
packing should not exceed $1.50 per ton. 

Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available. 



342 MARKET DAIRYING 

Where the source of ice is at too great a distance from 
the dairy, an artificial pond should be made upon ground 
with a reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural 
concave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded 
with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply 
of ice will be available in a very short time. 

Insulated Ice Houses. The present tendency is to 
use ice houses with insulation sufficient to dispense with 
the use of sawdust. With ice houses of this kind, the 
refrigerator is cooled by circulating the air directly over 
the ice in the ice house. See Fig. 37>^, page IOI. 



CHAPTER XXXXII. 
sewage; disposal from dairy and dwelling. 

To secure a high degree of sanitation in and about 
the dairy house it is necessary to see that proper 
disposal is made of the sewage from both the dairy and 
the dwelling. Where the latter is situated close to the 
dairy house its surroundings may do fully as much harm 
as those of the dairy itself. 

With open privies and the careless dumping of kitchen 
slops near the dwelling, we have a double means of en- 
dangering the dairy. If the ground near the dwelling 
and privy slopes in the direction of the water supply, the 
latter is likely to become contaminated through seepage in 
the manner indicated in Fig. 63. In addition to this -there 
is the danger of flies carrying various kinds of bacteria 
from these places to the dairy house. Flies not only carry 
the obnoxious, putrefactive species, but too often also 
the deadly pathogenic kinds, such as cause typhoid fever, 
to say nothing of the off ensive . excrementitious matter 
conveyed in this manner. 

Obviously the accumulation of sewage about the dairy 
house is attended by practically the same danger as that 
arising from the unsanitary surroundings of the dwelling. 
Moreover there is certain to be trouble also from bad 
odors. 

SEPTIC TANK. 

The best means of taking care of the sewage from 
343 



344 



MARKET DAIRYING 



both the dairy and the dwelling is to run it into a septic 
tank (see Fig. 73, designed by the author) and from 
this into a net-work of tile laid underground where it 
will irrigate and fertilize the soil. 

Object of Septic Tank. The main purpose of the 
tank, as its name indicates, is to thoroughly decompose 
all organic matter entering it. This is accomplished by 
numerous species of bacteria, and the tank may be 
properly designated as a germ incubator. Where the 




Fig. 73 —Septic Tank. 

sewage is emptied into underground tile, the tank also 
serves as a storage, discharging its contents intermittently. 
This is necessary to force the liquid to all points of the 
system and to allow time for each discharge to soak away 
before the appearance of the next. 

Construction of Tank. The general plan of construc- 
tion is illustrated in Figs. 73 and 74. The tank is located 
in the ground with the top within a foot or two of the 
surface. For durability it is preferably constructed of 
brick, stone or concrete. The tank is so constructed as to 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 



345 



I 


r ' V. 






;' 












"" 








•E 


















I 
















/ 




B 


cm 

* 


HAfGt 







retain all sediment and floating material, since the dis- 
charges permit the withdrawal of the liquid from near the 
middle of the tank only. This is one of the main features 
of the tank. All inorganic matter entering the tank will 
gradually settle and, of course, remain in it. Some of 
the organic matter tends to settle during the first 24 hours, 

after which it comes to the 
surface to be gradually 
wasted away by the action 
of bacteria. This wasting 
away is naturally very 
slow, and since the slowly 
gathering organic matter 
nearly all remains in the 
first section of the tank, 
this must be large enough 
to provide for a consider- 
able accumulation of it. 

The tank should be built air tight, except in two places. 
At the right is an air inlet, consisting of a goose-neck- 
pipe, which renders the vent at the top more effective. 
This vent consists of a long shaft extending beyond the 
top of the dairy, thus carrying off the foul gases caused 
by the decomposition of the material within. One-inch 
gas pipe, properly fastened, will serve as a satisfactory 
vent. 

In order to afford communication of sections A and C 
with the vent, the two partitions should not be built 
quite as high as the tank. There should be at least one 
inch space between the top of the partitions and the cover. 
A 1 y 2 -inch gas pipe should be laid over the tank 
through which the water from the cooler and vats may 
be discharged directly into the drain. This water 



Fig. 74.— Cross Section of Septic 
Tank. 



346 MARKET DAIRYING 

requires no purification and, if conducted through the 
tank, would necessitate one of too large dimensions. 
Moreover, the large amount of cold water needed for 
cooling milk and cream would cool the contents of the 
tank too much for a rapid decomposition of the material 
within. 

Size of Tank. This must necessarily depend upon the 
amount of sewage run into it. In general it should have 
capacity sufficient to hold all of one day's waste in the 
smallest section (C). It will be noticed from the cut 
that section A is considerably larger than either of the 
other two. The reason for this is that nearly all of the 
inorganic matter remains in the bottom of this part of the 
tank, while the organic matter, as already stated, gradu- 
ally accumulates at the surface in this section, in spite 
of constant decomposition. Where the tank receives the 
sewage from both the dairy and the dwelling, a tank 
12 feet square by 4^2 feet deep will be large enough, 
provided the water used for cooling is not run into it. 
It is well to remember, however, that the larger the tank 
used the better the results that may be expected from it. 

Flow of Sewage Through Tank. Four-inch tile, 
carefully laid, may be used to conduct the sewage from 
the dairy to the tank. A trap is placed near the dairy 
to shut off the odors coming from the drain. At the 
point at which the sewage enters the tank it is desirable 
to attach an elbow with an arm sufficiently long to keep 
the lower end always in the sewage. This prevents un- 
due mixing of the incoming sewage with that already 
in the tank, a matter of importance in the successful 
operation of the tank. 

When the sewage in section A has reached the dotted 
line, it begins to discharge into section B through three- 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 347 

inch .gas pipe as shown in Fig. 73. The liquid is with- 
drawn from a point near the middle of the tank as in- 
dicated by the discharge pipes. The eight-inch space 
above the discharge permits the accumulation of organic 
matter. The discharge from 'B into C, is the same as 
that from A into B ; but the discharge pipes are of neces- 
sity lower by an amount indicated by the dotted lines. 
Compartment C discharges intermittently by means of 
an automatic syphon. 

The sewage becomes gradually purified in its passage 
through the tank, and as it flows from the last section 
it is nearly as clear as water, but has a slightly sour odor, 
which it seems to retain and which is in no way objection- 
able. The purified sewage has been kept for weeks with 
no sign of the development of putrefactive odors. 

The discharges should be arranged as shown in Fig. 
65. This arrangement will cause the least mixing of old 
and new sewage. There is no discharge from A into B 
until the second day's sewage flows into A. Similarly 
there is no discharge from B into C until the second 
discharge into B, etc. The sewage, therefore, requires 
from three to four days in its passage through the tank. 

Cost of Septic Tank. A double partition tank, 12 
feet square and 4^2 feet deep, constructed of concrete 
consisting of one part cement, two parts sand and four 
parts gravel, will cost approximately $50.00 when the 
walls are five inches thick. 

SEWAGE DISPOSAL FROM DWELLING. 

The open privy and the cesspool of kitchen slops are 
objectionable not only in so far as they affect the dairy 
house, but also in that they constitute a source of danger 
to the members of the family in ways entirely discon- 
nected with the milk supply. With the dairy house 



348 MARKET DAIRYING 

already equipped with power to pump and elevate water, 
there is apparently no reason why the dwelling should 
not be equipped with a water closet. And with a water 
closet in the house there would be practically no expense 
connected with the disposal of the kitchen waste, since 
this would be discharged directly into the soil pipe con- 
nected with the closet. What a convenience such an 
equipment would afford to the housewife and members of 
the family ! 

If the dwelling and dairy house are reasonably close 
together, one septic tank will answer for both. In such 
a case the tank is located between the two buildings. 
Where a great distance separates the buildings, a tank 
is provided for each and the outlets are brought together 
as near the tank as possible to save extra expense of tile. 

SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION. 

While the septic tank sufficiently decomposes the 
organic matter to leave the sewage from the tank without 
offensive odors, it is best to run the discharge into a 
system of underground tile where it will serve as a fer- 
tilizer and as an irrigating agent. The tile should be 
laid below the frost line. In loose soils one foot of tile 
per gallon of sewage will answer. Clayey soils require 
two to three times this amount. 

Three-inch agricultural drain tile are best adapted for 
drainage work of this kind, the tile being" laid with open 
joints and with a slope of three or four inches per hundred 
feet. 

It is important that this subsurface irrigating system 
be located where there is no seepage into the water supply. 
In places where there is no danger from frost it is best 
to lay the tile only about one and one-half feet below the 
surface. 



APPENDIX. 

Composition of Butter. According to analyses re- 
ported by various experiment stations, American butter 
has the following average composition : 

Per cent. 

Water 13 

Fat 83 

Proteids 1 

Salt 3 

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con- 
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids not fat. This is 
illustrated in the following figures by Richmond: 



Total solids. 


Solids 
not fat. 


Fat. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


32.50 


6.83 


25.67 


37.59 


6.14 


31.45 


50.92 


5.02 


45.90 


55.05 


4.65 


50.40 


57.99 


4.17 


53.82 


68.18 


3.30 


64.88 



The same authority also reports the following detailed 
analysis of a thick cream : 

349 



350 



MARKET DAIRYING 



Per cent. 
Water 39-37 



Fat .... 
Sugar . 
Proteids 
Ash ... 



Composition of Buttermilk. According to Vieth, 
buttermilk from ripened cream has the following compo- 
sition : 

Per cent. 
Water 90-39 



Fat 

Milk sugar 4 

Lactic acid 

Proteids . 3 

Ash 



Creamery buttermilk should not average above .2% fat. 
Composition of Skim=milk. Richmond has found 
the following average composition of separator skim- 
milk: 

Per cent. 
Water 90.50 



Fat 

Milk? sugar 4 

Casein 3 

Albumen 

Ash 



COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THER- 
MOMETER SCALES. 



Thermometer. 


F. 


c. 




212 
32 


100 











Difference between boiling and freezing point 


180 


100 



APPENDIX 



351 



From the above it will be seen that one degree Centi- 
grade is equivalent to 9-5 degrees Fahrenheit. Hence 
the following rules: 

1. To change C. into F. reading, multiply by 9-5 and 
add 32. 

Example: 50°C = (50 X f) + 32 = 112°F. 

2. To change F. into C. reading, subtract 32 and 
multiply by 5-9. 

Example: 182°F == (182 — 32) X f =83£°C. 

METRIC SYSTEM OE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

This system was devised by the French people and has 
very extensive application wherever accuracy in weights 
and measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in 
ordinary weights and measures are given in the follow- 
ing table : 



Ordinary weights and measures. 


Equivalents in metric system. 




28.35 grams. 




0.9464 liter. 




3.7854 liters. 




29.57 cubic centimeters (c.c.) 
0.4536 kilogram. 






1 inch 






0.3048 meter. 







352 



MARKET DAIRYING 



DETAILED SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING FARM DAIRIES 



Owner or lessee of farm 

P. O. address State 

Total number of cows Number milking. 

Gallons of milk produced daily 

Product is retailed by producer in . 

Sold at wholesale to 

For milk supply of 

Permit No Date of inspection 

REMARKS 



, 191. 



EQUIPMENT 



COWS. 

Health 

Apparently in good health 1 

If tested with tuberculin once a year and no tuber- 
culosis is found, or if tested once in six months and 

all reacting animals removed 5 

(If tested only once a year and reacting animals found 

and removed, 2.) 

Comfort 

Bedding 1 

Temperature of stable 1 

Food (clean and wholesome) 

Water 

Clean and fresh 1 

Convenient and abundant 1 

STABLES. 

Location of stable 

Well drained 1 

Free from contaminating surroundings 1 

Construction of stable 

Tight, sound floor and proper gutter 2 

Smooth, tight walls and ceiling 1 

Proper stall, tie and manger 1 

Light, Four sq. ft. of glass per cow 

(Three sq. ft., 3 ; 2 sq. ft., 2 ; 1 sq. ft., 1. Deduct for un- 
" even distribution.) 

Ventilation: Automatic system 

Adjustable windows 1 

Cubic feet of space for cow; 500 to 1000 feet 

(Less than 500 ft., 2 ; less than 400 ft., 1 ; less than 300 ft., 

0; over 1000 ft., 0.) 

UTENSILS. 

Construction and condition of utensils 

Water for cleaning 

(Clean, convenient and abundant.) 

Small-top milking pail 

Facilities for hot water or steam 

(Should be in milk house, not in kitchen.) 

Milk cooler 

Clean milking suits . . ,. 

MILK ROOM. 

Location of milk room 

Free from contaminating surroundings 1 

Convenient 1 

Construction of milk room 

Floor, walls and ceiling 1 

Light, ventilation, screens 1 

Total 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



APPEXDIX 



353 



SCORE CARD -Continued. 



METHODS 



COWS. 



Cleanliness of cows. 



STABLES. 



Cleanliness of stables 

Floor 2 

Walls 1 

Ceiling and ledges 1 

Mangers and partitions 1 

Windows 1 

Stable at milking tune 

Barnyard clean and well drained 

Removal of manure daily to field or proper pit 

(To 50 ft. from stable, 1.) 



MILK ROOM. 



Cleanliness of milk room 



UTENSILS AND MILKING. 



Care and cleanliness of utensils 

Thoroughly washed and sterilized in live steam for 30 

minutes 5 

(Thoroughly washed and placed over steam jet, 4 ; 

thoroughly washed and scalded with boiling water, 3 , 

thoroughly washed, not scalded, 2.) 
Inverted in pure air 3 

Cleanliness of milking 

Clean , dry hands 3 

Udders washed and dried 6 

(Udders cleaned with moist cloth, 4; cleaned with dry 

cloth at least 15 minutes before milking, i.) 

HANDLING THE MILK. 

Cleanliness of attendants 

Milk removed immediately from stable 

Prompt cooling (cooled immediately after milking each 
cow 



Efficient cooling ; below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 60°, 2.) 
Storage below 50°F 

(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1 ) 
Transportation ; iced in summer 

(For jacket or wet blanket, allow 2; dry blanket or 

covered wagon, 1.) 

Total 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



60 



Equipment + Methods. 



FINAL SCORE;. 



NOTE 1.— If any filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the 
total *core shall be limited to 49. 

NOTE 2.— If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination or there is 
evidence of the presence of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, 
the score shall be 0. 



354 



MARKET DAIRYING 



SCORE CARD FOR SANITARY INSPECTION OF CITY 
MILK PLANTS 



Owner or manager Trade name 

City Street and No State. 

Milk 

Cream 

Permit or License No Date of inspection 



No. of wagons Gallons sold daily 



, 191. 



EQUIPMENT 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



Building: 

Location: Free from contaminating surroundings 

Arrangement 

Separate receiving room 1 

Separate handling room 2 

Separate wash room 1 

Separate sales room 1 

Separate boiler room -. 1 

Construction 

Floors tight, sound, cleanable 1 

Walls tight, smooth, cleanable 1 

Ceilings smooth, tight, cleanable 1 

Provision for light 1 

Provision for pure air 1 

Screens 2 

Minimum of shafting, pulleys, hangers, exposed 
pipes, etc 1 

Apparatus 

Boiler 2 

Hot-water heater 1 

Milk cooler 2 

Refrigerator 2 

Appliances for cleansing utensils and bottles 2 

Racks, etc., for utensils and bottles after cleaning 1 

Sterilizer for utensils and bottles 2 

Bottling and capping machine 1 

Wash bowl, soap, and towel for attendants 2 

Protection during delivery 2 

Condition of apparatus (make deduction for inac- 
cessible parts, open seams, rusty ware, decayed or 
battered tables or sink, milk-carrying pipes with 
rough interiors and lack of frequent hand couplings, 
and for badly worn and poorly repaired material) . . .4 

Laboratory and equipment 

Water supply 

Clean , fresh 1 

Convenient and abundant 1 

Total 



20 



APPENDIX 

SCORE CARD -Continued. 



355 



METHODS 



Building. 



Cleanliness : 

Floors 3 

Walls 1 

Ceilings 2 

Doors and windows 1 

Shafting, pulleys, hangers, pipes 1 

Freedom from odors 2 

Freedom from flies and other insects 3 

Drainage 2 

Apparatus 

Cleanliness : 

Thoroughly washed and rinsed 6 

Sterilized in live steam, thirty minutes 5 

(Thoroughly scalded after washing with water 
over 20U° F. or live steam, 3.) 

Bottle caps sterilized 3 

Protected from dirt 2 



Handling milk 

Received below 50° F 5 

(50° to 55°, 4; 55° to 60°, 3.) 

Rapidity of handling in plant 3 

Freedom from undue exposure to air in the plant 2 

Capping bottles by machine 1 

Bottle top and cap protected by covering 2 

Storage 45° F. or below 3 

(45° to 50°, 2; 50° to 55°, 1.) 

Inspection 

Bacteriological work 4 

Inspection of dairies supplying milk 5 

(Once a year, 1 ; twice a year, 2 ; three times a year, 
3 ; four times a year, 4.) 

Miscellaneous 

Cleanliness of attendants 2 

(General appearance, hands, etc. 
clothing, 1.) 
Cleanliness of delivery outfit 



1 ; clean washable 



Total. 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



15 




Score for equipment + score for methods = TOTAL SCORE. 



NOTE. — If the conditions in any particular are so exceptionally bad as to 
be inadequately expressed by a score of "0" the inspector can make a deduc- 
tion from the total score. 



Inspector. 



RULES AND REGULATIONS RELATING TO 
THE SALE OF MILK IN NEW YORK CITY. 

GRADE A.— FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN. 

GUARANTEED MILK. 

Definition. Guaranteed milk is milk produced at 
farms holding permits therefor from the board of health, 
and produced and handled in accordance with the follow- 
ing minimum requirements, rules, and regulations : 

i. Only such cows shall be admitted to the herd as 
have not re-acted to a diagnostic injection of tuberculin. 

2. All cows shall be annually tested with tuberculin, 
and all re-acting animals shall be excluded from the herd. 

3. No milk from re-acting animals shall be shipped to 
the city of New York for any purpose whatever. 

4. The milk shall not contain more than 30,000 bac- 
teria per c. c. when delivered to the consumer, or at any 
time prior to such delivery. 

5. The milk shall be delivered to the consumer only 
in sealed bottles which have been sealed at the dairy, 
and shall be labeled with the day of the week upon which 
the earliest milking, of which the contents of the bottle 
form part, has been drawn. 

6. The milk shall be delivered to the consumer within 
36 hours of the time at which it was drawn. 

356 



APPENDIX 357 

CERTIFIED MILK. 

Definition. Certified milk is milk certified by a milk 
commission appointed by the Medical Society of the 
County of New York, or the Medical Society of the 
County of Kings, as being produced under the super- 
vision and in conformity with the requirements of that 
commission as laid down for certified milk, and sold un- 
der a permit therefor issued by the board of health. 

No milk shall be held, kept, offered for sale, or sold 
and delivered as certified milk in the city of New York, 
which is produced under requirements less than those 
for guaranteed milk. 

INSPECTED MILK — RAW. 

Definition. Inspected milk (raw) is milk produced at 
farms holding permits therefor from the board of health, 
and produced and handled in accordance with the follow- 
ing minimum requirements, rules and regulations : 

1. Only such cows shall be admitted to the herd as 
have not re-acted to a diagnostic injection of tuberculin. 

2. All cows shall be tested annually with tuberculin, 
and all re-acting animals shall be excluded from the herd. 

3. No milk from re-acting animals shall be shipped 
to the city of New York for any purpose whatsoever. 

4. The farms at which the milk is produced must ob- 
tain at least 75 points in an official score of the depart- 
ment of health. These 75 points shall be made up as 
follows : 

A minimum of 25 points for equipment, and 50 points 
for method. 

5. The milk shall not contain more than an average 



358 MARKET DAIRYING 

of 60,000 bacteria per c. c. when delivered to the con- 
sumer, or at any time prior thereto. 

6. Unless otherwise specified in the permit, the milk 
shall be delivered to the consumer only in bottles. 

SELECTED MILK — PASTEURIZED. 

Definition. Selected milk (pasteurized) is milk 
handled and sold by dealers holding permits therefor 
from the board of health, and produced and handled in 
accordance with the following requirements, rules and 
regulations : 

1. The farms at which the milk is produced must ob- 
tain at least 60 points in an official score of the depart- 
ment of health. Of these 60 points, a minimum of 20 
points shall be required for equipment and a minimum 
of 40 points for method. 

2. All milk of this grade shall be pasteurized, and said 
pasteurization shall be carried on under a special per- 
mit issued therefor by the board of health, in addition to 
the permit for "Selected Milk (Pasteurized.)" 

3. The milk shall not contain more than an average 
of 50,000 bacteria per c. c. when delivered to the con- 
sumer, or at any time after pasteurization and prior to 
such delivery. 

4. Unless otherwise specified in the permit, the milk 
shall be delivered to the consumer only in bottles. 

5. All containers in which pasteurized milk is de- 
livered to the consumer shall be plainly labeled "Pasteur- 
ized." Labels must also bear the date and hour when 
pasteurization was completed, the place where pasteur- 
ization was performed, and the name of the person, firm, 
or corporation performing the pasteurization. 



APPENDIX 359 

. 6. The milk must be delivered to the consumers 
within 30 hours after the completion of the process of 
pasteurization. 

7. No milk shall be pasteurized more than once 

8. No milk supply averaging more than 200,000 bac- 
teria per c. c. shall be pasteurized for sale under the 
designation Selected Milk — Pasteurized. 

General Regulations for Grade A. 

1. The caps of all bottles containing milk of Grade 
A shall be white, and shall contain the words "Grade A" 
in black letters, in large type. 

2. If cans are used for the delivery of milk of Grade 
A, the said cans shall have affixed to them white tags 
with the words "Grade A" printed thereon in black let- 
ters, in large type, together with the designation "In- 
spected Milk (Raw)" or "Selected Milk (Pasteurized)," 
as the quality of the contents may require. 

■ GRADE B.— FOR ADULTS. 

SELECTED MILK RAW. 

Definition. . Selected milk (raw) is milk handled and 
sold by dealers holding permits therefor from the board 
of health, and produced and handled in accordance with 
the following minimum requirements, rules and regu- 
lations : 

1. Only such cows shall be admitted to the herd as 
have been physically examined by a regularly qualified 
veterinarian and declared by him to be healthy, and free 
from tuberculosis in so far as a physical examination may 



360 MARKET DAIRYING 

determine that fact. Such an examination of all cows 
shall be made at least once each year. 

2. The farms at which the milk is produced must ob- 
tain at least 68 points in an official score of the depart- 
ment of health. These 68 points shall be made up as 
follows : A minimum of 25 points for equipment, and 
a minimum of 43 points for method. 

3. The milk shall not contain an excessive number 
of bacteria when delivered to the consumer, or at any 
time prior thereto. 

PASTEURIZED MILK. 

Definition. Pasteurized milk (Grade B) is milk pro- 
duced under a permit issued therefor by the board of 
health, and produced and handled in accordance with the 
following minimum requirements, rules and regulations 
and in further accordance with the special rules and reg- 
ulations relating to the oasteurization of milk : 

1. All containers in which pasteurized milk is de- 
livered to the consumer shall be plainly labeled "Pasteur- 
ized." Labels must also bear the date and hour when the 
pasteurization was completed, the place where pasteur- 
ization was performed, and the name of the person, firm, 
or corporation performing the pasteurization. 

2. The milk must be delivered to the consumer within 
36 hours after the completion of the process of pasteur- 
ization. 

3. No milk shall be pasteurized more than once. 

4. No milk containing an excessive number of bac- 
teria shall be pasteurized. 



APPENDIX 361 

General Regulations for Grade B. 

1. Caps of bottles containing milk of Grade B shall be 
white and marked ''Grade B" in bright green letters, in 
large type. 

2. Cans containing milk of Grade B shall have a tag 
affixed to each can with the words "Grade B" in large 
type, and the words of the subdivision to which the qual- 
ity of the milk in the said can conforms. 

GRADE C— FOR COOKING AND MANUFAC- 
TURING PURPOSES ONLY. 

Definition. Raw milk not conforming to the require- 
ments of any of the subdivisions of Grade A or Grade B, 
shall be handled according to the following requirements, 
rules and regulations : 

i. Milk of this grade shall not be sold at retail from 
stores. 

2. Milk of this grade may be sold to restaurants, 
hotels, and manufacturing plants only. 

3. Cans containing milk of Grade C shall be painted 
red on necks and shoulders, and shall have the words 
"Grade C" in large type affixed to each can. 

All creameries handling milk of different grades will 
be required to demonstrate to the department of health 
that they are capable of keeping the grades separate, and 
must keep records satisfactory to the department of 
health concerning the amount of milk of each grade 
handled each day. 

CONDENSED OR CONCENTRATED MIEK. 

Definition. This is milk' of any grade or subdivision 
thereof from which any part of the water has been re- 



362 MARKET DAIRYING 

moved, or from which any part of the water has been 
removed and to which sugar has been added. 

Milk of this designation shall be sold only under a 
permit issued therefor. 

GENERAL RULES AND REGULATIONS. 
Permits. 

1. A permit for the sale of milk or cream, of any grade 
or designation, may be granted only after an application 
has been made in writing on the special blank provided 
for the purpose. 

2. A permit for the sale of milk, of any grade or 
designation, or of cream, may be granted only after the 
premises where it is proposed to care for and handle 
such milk shall have been rendered clean and sanitary. 

3. Every permit for the sale of milk, or cream, from 
places other than wagons shall expire one year from the 
date of issue. 

4. No wagon shall be used for the transportation of 
milk, condensed milk, or cream, without a permit from 
the board of health. Every such permit shall expire on 
the last day of December of the year in which it is 
granted. A wagon permit for the sale or transportation 
of milk, condensed milk, or cream shall be conspicuously 
displayed on the outside of the wagon so that it may 
be readily seen from the street. 

5. Every permit for the sale of milk, of any grade or 
designation, in a store, shall be so conspicuously placed 
that it may be readily seen at all times. 

6. All stores selling or keeping for sale milk, con- 
densed milk, or cream will be frequently inspected and 



APPENDIX 



363 



scored by a system adopted by the department of health, 
and the revocation of the permit of any store may ensue 
if the score is found repeatedly below the required stand- 
ard. 

7. The revocation of a permit may ensue for violation 
of any of the rules and regulations of the department of 
health. 

8. The revocation of a permit may ensue upon re- 
peated conviction of the holder thereof of the violation 
of any section of the Sanitary Code relating to the adul- 
teration of milk of any grade or designation. 

Sanitary Requirements. 

1. Milk," condensed milk, or cream shall not be kept 
for sale nor stored in any stable or room used for sleep- 
ing or domestic purposes, or in any room if in commun- 
ication with such stable or room, or with watercloset 
apartments, except when such watercloset apartments are 
enclosed by a vestibule and are properly ventilated to the 
external air. 

2. Milk, condensed milk, or cream shall not be sold 
or stored in any room which is dark, poorly ventilated, 
or dirty, or in which rubbish or useless material is al- 
lowed to accumulate, or in which there are offensive 
odors. 

3. The vessels which contain milk, condensed milk, 
or cream, while on sale, must be so protected by suitable 
covers and so placed in the store that the milk, con- 
densed milk, or cream will not become contaminated by 
dust, dirt, or flies. 

4. Cans containing milk, condensed milk, or cream 



364 MARKET DAIRYING 

shall not be allowed to stand on the sidewalk or outside 
of the store door. 

5. Milk, condensed milk, or cream must not be trans- 
ferred from cans to bottles or other vessels on the streets, 
at ferries, or at railroad depots. 

6. Cans in which milk, condensed milk, or cream is 
kept for sale, shall be kept either in a milk tub, prop- 
erly iced, or in a clean ice-box or refrigerator in which 
these or similar articles of food are stored 

7. All containers in which milk, condensed milk, or 
cream is handled, transported, or sold, must be thoroughly 
cleaned before filling, but such cleaning shall not be done, 
nor shall such containers be filled in any stable or in any 
room used for sleeping or domestic purposes, or in any 
room having connection with such stable or rooms, or 
with watercloset apartments, except when such water- 
closet apartments are enclosed by a vestibule and are 
properly ventilated to the external air. 

8. All dippers, measures or other utensils used in the 
handling of milk, condensed milk, or cream must be kept 
clean while in use, and must be thoroughly cleaned with 
hot water and soapsuds directly after each day's use. 

9. The ice-box or ice-tub in which milk, condensed 
milk, or cream is kept, must be maintained in a thoroughly 
clean condition, and must be scrubbed at such times as 
may be directed by the department of health. 

10. The overflow pipe from the ice-box in which milk., 
condensed milk, or cream is kept, must not be directly 
connected with the drain pipe or sewer, but must dis- 
charge into a properly trapped, sewer-connected, water- 
supplied open sink. 

11. No person having a contagious disease, or car- 



APPENDIX 365 

ing for or coming in contact with any person having a 
contagious disease, shall handle milk. 

Labeling. 

Each container or receptacle used for bringing milk or 
cream into the city of New York, from which the said 
milk or cream is sold directly to the consumer, shall bear 
a tag stating, if shipped from a creamery, the location of 
the said creamery and the date of shipment ; if shipped di- 
rectly from a dairy, the location of the said dairy and 
the date of shipment. 

As soon as the contents of such container or receptacle 
are sold, or before the said container is returned or other- 
wise disposed of, or leaves the possession of the dealer, 
the tag thereon shall be removed and kept on file in the 
store where such milk or cream has been sold for a period 
of two months thereafter for inspection by the department 
of health. 

Every wholesale dealer in the city of New York shall 
keep a record in his main office in the said city, which 
shall show the place or places from which milk or cream, 
delivered by him daily to retail stores in the city of New 
York, has been received ; and the said record shall be kept 
for a period of two months for inspection by the depart- 
ment of health, and shall be readily accessible to the in- 
spectors of the said department. 

Pasteurisation. 

I. Milk, which has been subjected to the action of 
heat commonly known as "pasteurization," shall not be 
held, ke*pt, offered for sale, or sold and delivered in the 



366 MARKET DAIRYING 

city of New York, unless the receptacle in which the same 
is contained is plainly labeled "Pasteurized." 

2. Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pas- 
teurized as has been subjected to a process in which the 
temperature and exposure conform to one of the fol- 
lowing: See page ill. 

3. The milk after pasteurization must De at once 
cooled and placed in clean containers, and the containers 
immediately closed. 

4. The said term "pasteurized" shall only be used in 
connection with the milk classified as "Grade A : selected 
Milk (Pasteurized)" and "Grade B: Pasteurized," or 
cream obtained from such milk. 

5. Milk or cream which has been heated in any degree 
will not be permitted to be sold in New York City un- 
less the heating conforms with the requirements of the 
department of health for the pasteurization of milk or 
cream. 

6. Applications for permits to pasteurize milk or 
cream will not be received until all forms of apparatus 
connected with the said pasteurization have been tested 
and the processes approved by the board of health. 

' sTorch's TEST. 

This test makes it possible to determine whether milk, 
cream, skimmilk or buttermilk has been heated to 176 F. 
or above. It is made as follows : Put one teaspoonful 
of milk into a test tube, add one drop of 2% solution of 
peroxid of hydrogen and two drops of 2% solution of 
paraphenylenediamin ; shake the mixture ; if a dark violet 
color promptly appears, the milk has not been heated to 
176 F. 



De Laval Milk Clarifier 



Next to the Cream Separator the most im- 
portant invention in the history of Dairy 

pro gr eSS— Statement of a National Dairy Authority. 



t| Milk clarified with the De 
sweet longer than milk not so 




DE LAVAL MILK CLARIFIER— 
Belt driven. Capacities 8,000 or 1 2,000 
pounds per hour. Also furnished with 
steam turbine drive with same capacities. 



Laval Milk Clarifier will keep 
treated. 

1$ Removes all free dirt, cow 
hairs and other objectionable 
foreign matter from milk, 
rendering it more wholesome 
and by the same token mak- 
ing it more marketable. 

€J The general introduction 
of these machines will greatly 
increase the consumption of 
milk. 

€| Requires less than one 
horse power to operate the 
12,000 lbs. per hour ma- 
chine and it requires but lit- 
tle attention. 

C| Large milk dealers, con- 
denseries and cheese facto- 
ries will find it greatly to 
their advantage to investigate 
the merits of this machine. 



SEND FOR COMPLETE CATALOG 

De Laval Separator Company 



165 Broadway, NEW YORK 



29 E. Madison St., CHICAGO 



INDEX. 



Page 

Acid measures, sulphuric 52 

Acids tests for milk and cream. 83 
Acid test, rapid, for milk and 

cream 87 

Aeration of milk and cream ... 39 

Air, dust free 35 

Albumen 13 

Albumenoids 12 

Appendix : . . . . 349 

Ash 13 

Babcock test 48 

apparatus for 50 

Babcock tester, calculating speed 

of 57 

Babcock testers 4!», 58 

Babcock test, making a 53 

sample for 48 

Bacteria, description of 20 

Bacterial counts 232 

Barn, sanitary 30 

Bedding, clean 36 

Bitter fermentation 25 

Boiler and its management ....326 

Boiler, care of / 332 

firing of 330 

pointers on 331 

scale 334 

Boric acid, detection of 195 

Bottles as disease carriers 234 

Bottling milk 122 

Bulgaricus, bacillus 150 

preparation and propaga- 
tion 150 

Butter, composition of 349 

dairy, marketing of 271 

as a side line 133 

granules 255 

judging 202 

marketing, creamery 267 

dairy 271 

overrun 274 



Page 
Butter packages, paraffining. .. .265 

packing of 263 

salting of 255 

score card 203 

washing of 255 

working of 258 

Butterfat 9 

composition of 10 

globules 7, 9, 19 

physical properties of 9 

Buttermaking 239 

Buttermilk, composition of 350 

Butyric fermentation 24 

Cans, shipping 129 

Casein 12 

Certified milk 183 

Cheddar cheese making 278 

cheese, marketing of 272 

Cheese, cheddar, judging of.... 207 

making 278 

club 180 

cottage 175 

cream 180 

factory dividends 2n.~i 

neufchatel 178 

paraffining 283 

pimento 182 

ripening of 282 

score card 208 

whey or ricotta 181 

Churning 249 

conditions influencing ....249 

difficult 260 

operations 253 

Churns, cleaning 260 

City milk plants 320 

City milk supply 226 

Cold storage 97 

air, forced circulation .... 99 

anteroom for 97 

insulation . 98 

natural circulation in 100 



369 



370 



INDEX 



Page 

Coloring butter 254 

Colostrum milk 14 

Composite sampling 59 

Coolers, milk and cream 41 

Cooling milk and cream 30 

Cottage cheese 175 

marketing 178 

methods of manufacture ..175 

packing 177 

Cows, clean 31 

Cream, acid tests for , 83 

aging 167 

bottles, Babcock 50, 71, 72 

bottles, calibrating 57 

cheese making 180 

composition of 349 

cooling of 39 

detection of taints in 190 

frequency of testing 70 

judging of 200 

keeping account of 220 

pasteurization 104 

regulating richness of .... 94 

rich, advantages of 94 

ripening 239 

control of 244 

methods of 241 

natural 242 

object of 239 

pasteurized 242 

starter 243 

ripeners 247 

samples, necessity of weigh- 
ing 70 

sample, preparing of 73 

samplers: «. 66 

samples, composite 64 

sampling 65 

at creamery 69 

at farm 68 

scales 53, 71, 72 

Shipping 128 

standardizing 125 

standards for cities 233 

straining 254 

tests, making of 73 

reading of 73 



Page 

Cream tickets 220, 225 

weighing, at creamery...... 69 

at farm 68 

Creamery dividends .287 

floor plan for ..270 

statement 293 

Creaming 90 

centrifugal 92 

gravity 90, 91 

processes of 90 

Cultured milk 147 

Curdling and digesting fermen- 
tation 23 

Curd test, Wisconsin 191 

Dairy houses 312 

Dirt, detection of 195 

Dividends 287 

Fggs as a side line 133 

Farrington's acid test 85 

Fat globules 19* 

Fats, insoluble 11 

soluble 12 

Fermentation test, Gerber 194 

Flies 37 

Fore-milk 36 

Formaldehyde, detection of.... 196 

Gassy fermentation 27 

Homogenizer 167 

Ice box 102 

Ice cream, aging cream for.... 167 

chocolate 162 

condensed milk for 168 

cost of 165 

freezing process 158 

fruit ice cream ..." 163 

lemon 162 

making of 157 

marketing 166 

nut 163 

packing 163 

plants 323 

swell in 165 



INDEX 



371 



Page 
Ice cream, use of gelatin in.... 164 

vanilla 1G1 

Ice house, construction of 340 

insulated 101 

Ice supply 339 

Injector 328 

Inspection at farm 228 

in city 226 

Insulation, cold storage 98 

Judging butter 202 

cheddar cheese 207 

milk and cream 200 

Lactic acid cultures 135 

Lactic fermentation 22 

Lacto 169 

Lactometer and its use 7.">, 76 

Manns' acid test 84 

Marketing butter 263 

cheese 272 

dairy butter 271 

milk and cream 121 

pointers on 117 

Metric system 351 

Milk, acid tests for 83 

adulterations 236 

bottle, Babcock 50 

bottles, calibrating 58 

bottling 122 

buying on fat basis 211 

care of in home 216 

certified 183 

city, temperature and age 

regulations for 235 

colostrum 14 

composition of 8 

cooling of . . . r 39 

cultured 147 

as a side line 133 

marketing 152 

method of manufacture. 149 
therapeutic value of... 147 

value as a drink 149 

detection of dirt in 197 

detection of preservatives 

in 195 



Page 

Milk, detection of taints in 190 

gassy, in cheese making ..283 
heating before separating. . 95 
houses (see dairy houses) 

fermentations 20 

from different breeds .... 17 

judging of 200 

inspection at farm 229 

keeping account of 220 

microscopic appearance of . . 7 
modified 170 

preparation of 171 

modifying in home 218 

overripe, in cheese making. 285 

pail sanitary 33 

paying for at creameries. . .292 

pasteurization of 104 

physical properties of 7 

plants 320 

preservatives 60 

rules and regulations for... 356 

samplers 61 

sanitary production of .... 29 

score cards 200 

secretion 14 

selling on fat basis 211 

shipping 128 

skimming, detection of ... 80 

specific gravity of 8 

solids 77 

calculation of 79 

standardizing of 125 

standards for cities 233 

straining of 35 

sugar 13 

supply, control of city ..226 

tickets 220, 225 

tests, reading of 54 

value, compared with its 

products 186 

variations in quality of . . 15 

watering of 80 

Modified milk 170 

Neufchatel cheese 178 

methods of manufacture. .. 178 
packing and marketing ...179 



372 



INDEX 



Page 

Overrun, butter 274 

ice cream 165 

Pimento cheese making 182 

Pipette 52 

Preservatives, detection of 195 

Preservatives, for composite 

samples 60 

Packing butter 263 

Pasteurization : 104 

advantages of, in butter 

making 242 

for milk and cream.... 104 

growing popular 105 

held process Ill 

home 217 

necessity of clean milk for. 112 
objections to flash process .106 

of milk and cream 104 

processes 106 

Pasteurized milk, low tem- 
perature for 112 

Pasteurizing chart 107 

in bottles 114 

regulations Ill 

Refrigeration, mechanical 296 

Refrigerator connected with ice 

house 101 

ice box end 100 

Ricotta cheese making 181 

Salicylic acid, detection of.... 196 

Salting butter 255 

Samplers, cream 66 

Samples, taking milk 59 

Sampling, composite 59 

cream 65 

Sanitary milk production 29 

Score card for butter 203 

for cheese 208 

for city milk plants 354 

for farm dairies 352 

for milk and cream 200 

Sediment tester 197 

Separators, fastening 95 

Septic tank 343 

Sewage disposal 343 

Shipping cans 1 29 

milk and cream 12S 



Page 

Side lines 132 

Skimmilk bottle 51 

Skimmilk — Buttermilk, manufac- 
ture of 154. 

as a side line 134 

Skimmilk, composition of 350 

Skimming milk, detection of . . 80 
Slimy or ropy fermentation . . . 26 
Standardizing milk and cream. 125 

Starters 135 

commercial 138 

preparation of 138 

mother 143 

natural 136 

natural vs. commercial 139 

Steam 329 

wet and dry 336 

Sterilizing vessels 30S 

Strainers 35 

Straining cream 254 

Straining milk 35 

Test bottles, cleaning of 56 

Tester, Babcock 49,58 

sediment 197 

Testing composite samples .... 63 

cream 65, 70 

milk 48 

Testjars 64 

Themometer scales 350 

Titration 83 

Toxic fermentations 27 

Tubercule bacilli in milk 231 

Tuberculin test 229 

benefits of . 231 

Vanilla beans 160 

flavor 159 

Vessels as disease carriers 234 

clean 32 

washing of 306 

Viscogen H3 

Washing butter 255 

vessels 306 

Wash sinks 300 

Water supply 337 

Whey cheese (see ricotta cheese) 
Wisconsin curd test 191 



The Vilter Manufacturing Co. 

(Established 1867) 
877 Clinton Street ::: MILWAUKEE, WIS. 

" THE CREAM CITY " 

Buadc S CORLISS STEAM ENGINES 

Any horse power, Girder or Heavy Duty Type for 

Belted or Direct Connected Service. Medium 

or high speed, Vertical or Horizontal Slide 

Valve Engines, any size, Boilers, 

Heaters, Pumps, Etc. 




Vertical Single-Acting Refrigerating Machine for Belt Drive 

REFRIGERATING MACHINERY 

Vertical or Horizontal, for Dairies, Creameries, Ice 

Cream Plants, Cold Storage Houses, Markets or for 

Ice Making. Catalogs upon application. 

If interested in above machine ask for Bulletin H.-l 6 



<f 



Torsion Balance 




mum 

Style 1530 

FOUR-BOTTLE CREAM TEST 
SCALE. Used with Babcock test. We 
make scales for one, two and twelve 
bottles. 



CREAM 

AND 

BUTTER 
Test Scales 

T 





Style 1700 

BUTTER MOISTURE TEST 
SCALE. Percentage read direct 
from beams. No figuring. No 
small weights. 



We make 
Special 
Scales for 
Special 
Purposes 



H2773 

Style 779 

BUTTER PRINT SCALE for weighing pound prints. No 
weights required. 



Our scales are 
sold by all 
leading 
jobbers. 



The Torsion Balance Company 



^ 



Office 
92 Reade St., NEW YORK 



Factory 

147-9 Eighth St., JERSEY CITY, N. J. 



• 



Celine® 






For Dairy Farmers, Milk 
Dealers, Creamerymen, Ice 
Cream Makers and all who 
produce and deal in Dairy 
Products 



Y^OU cannot meet modern demands 
1 with out-of-date equipment. 
Take advantage of our 25 years' ex- 
perience designing and manufactur- 
ing the highest grade appliances for 
dairymen. C. P. equipment puts you 
in position to get top prices and the 
cream of the trade. 

Drop a line to our nearest office for 
a copy of our complete catalog — 
filled with descriptions of modern, 
efficient and economical machinery 
and the highest quality supplies. 

The Creamery Package Mfg. 
Company :: :: Chicago, 111. 



Philadelphia, Pa. 
Waterloo, la. 



Omaha, Neb. 
Kansas City, Mo. 



Minneapolis, Minn. 
Albany, N. Y. 



J 




« Dacro Crown 

Makes an hermetically sealed milk bot- 
tle possible — insures continued cleanli- 
ness after filling and crowning — facili- 
tates transportation and refrigeration — 
makes tampering with the contents of the 
bottle impossible without immediate de- 
tection by dairyman or consumer — pro- 
vides a seal, which, after its initial re- 
moval from the bottle, is sufficiently in- 
tact for use as an odor proof temporary 
covering for the bottle while any portion 
of its contents remains — deters bacterial 
development — permits the accomplish- 
ment of pasteurization within the bottle. 

Manufactured by 

The Crown Cork & Seal Co. 
Baltimore, U. S. A. 



Michels' "Creamery Buttermaking" 

= And — 1 

Michels' "Dairy Farming" 

□ rzu □ 

Standard Text Books 



SEP 



9 mi 



